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Foreign Policy
Winter 1998–99
Military Revolutions Throughout History
Infantry Revolution (14th century): Following the outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War, infantry displaced cavalry as the dominant combat unit. A key factor underlying this transition was the development of the six-foot yew longbow, which gave archers enhanced range and the ability to penetrate the armor of cavalrymen.
Artillery Revolution (15th century): Although the invention of gunpowder dates back to the thirteenth century, artillery did not play a significant role in combat until the final years of the Hundred Years’ War. Metallurgical breakthroughs drove down the costs of gun barrels, and a process called “corning” made gunpowder three times more powerful than before.
Revolution of Sail and Shot (14th to 17th centuries): Until the late fourteenth century, ship design had not changed significantly for 2,000 years. The sailing ship replaced the oar-driven galley, and warships evolved from troop carriers to artillery platforms.
Fortress Revolution (16th century): New styles of defensive fortifications emerged that could better withstand artillery bombardment.
Gunpowder Revolution (16th to 17th centuries): Archers were phased out in favor of infantry units armed with muskets and artillery.
Napoleonic Revolution (18th century): France was the first nation to standardize its equipment and artillery and improve the organization of its military formations, while moving to a large conscripted army.
Land Warfare Revolution (19th century): The introduction of railroads enhanced strategic mobility and made it possible for nations to supply and sustain large armies in the field. The telegraph facilitated the rapid transmission of information. Rifling improved the aim and accuracy of muskets and artillery.
Naval Revolution (19th to 20th centuries): Metal-hulled ships emerged, powered by turbined engines and armed with long-range artillery.
Interwar Revolutions in Mechanization, Aviation, and Information (20th century): The era following World War I gave rise to a series of technological innovations that would set the stage for World War II: improvements in internal-combustion engines and aircraft designs, carrier aviation, modern amphibious warfare, and the full exploitation of radio and radar.
Nuclear Revolution (20th century): The coupling of nuclear warheads to ballistic missiles raised the specter of complete annihilation in warfare.
Source: Drawn from Andrew Krepinevich’s “Cavalry to Computer: The Pattern of Military Revolutions” (National Interest, Fall 1994).