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CIAO DATE: 12/99

Men, Women, and War Conference

March 6-9, 1997

Initiative on Conflict Resolution and Ethnicity

 

Table of Contents

  1. Welcome, Introductions, and Mandate

  2. Session I: Hidden Horrors: Comfort Women During World War II

  3. Session II: Men, Women, and War: A Psychological Framework

  4. Session III: Gender and Genocide: Lessons from the Holocaust and World War II

  5. Session IV: Sexual Slavery During World War II

  6. Session V: Sexual Slavery Today: Colonialism, Racism, Sexism, and Human Rights

  7. Session VI: Rape Warfare: Bosnia and Croatia

  8. Session VII: War Crimes and the Pursuit of Justice

  9. Session VIII: Men, Women, and War: What Does it Have to Do With Northern Ireland?

 

 

Welcome, Introductions, and Mandate

Dr. John Darby welcomed the delegates to Northern Ireland and to the conference. He gave a brief introduction and overview of the Initiative on Conflict Resolution and Ethnicity (INCORE) and its mandate. Dr. Darby then introduced Dr. Valerie Morgan, INCORE’s Director of Research, and she offered some words of welcome. Dr. Morgan then introduced Dr. Carol Rittner. Dr. Morgan and Dr. Rittner collaborated on the planning and implementation of this conference.

Dr. Rittner asked each of the participants to introduce themselves; to tell where they came from; and to answer the following question—“I will consider this conference a success if ___________________________________.”

Following individual introductions, Dr. Rittner opened the conference with words from Susan Brownmiller, an American feminist and author of articles and books on the subject of sexual violence against women. “Rape by a conquering soldier destroys all remaining illusions of power and property for men of the defeated side. The body of a raped woman becomes a ceremonial battlefield—a parade ground for the victor’s trouping of the colors. The act that is played out upon her is a message passed between men. Vivid proof of victory for one and loss and defeat for the other.”

Dr. Rittner stated that all of the whys would not be answered at this conference [for example, why do men think that they can use their sexual organs as weapons of war, etc.], but challenged the delegates to at least ask the questions, and to listen to those who have suffered this violence. She challenged the delegates to remember not for the sake of the past, but for the sake of the future.

 

Session I: Hidden Horrors: Comfort Women During World War II

Moderator: Dr. Hea Sun Kim (USA)
Dr. Chung-Ok Yun (Korea)
Ms. Kyung-Shim Kim (Korea)
Mrs. Jeanne Ruff (Australia)
Ms. Miki Veda (Japan)

Dr. Kim stated that the idea of “comfort women” has grabbed a hold of her reality. She explained that her struggle has been to understand and make sense of what has happened. But perhaps understanding can only come after we experience the “comfort women” from those who have been most directly involved with this issue. And it was with that statement that Dr. Kim introduced the first panelist, Dr. Chung-Ok Yun.

Starting with the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, recruitment for Korean girls was carried out in Korea openly by the Japanese government General Office. Targets were single girls from the age of 17-20 years old. They were deceived by the government officers, policemen, brothel owners, and the like, and they were told that they would work at ammunition factories, field hospitals, construction sites, etc. Toward the end of the war, Japanese military policemen and soldiers joined in kidnapping girls as young as 14 years old as well as married women (provided that they were not pregnant) by force and through violent means.

Young girls were seduced and kidnapped prior to 1937 since the Kanto Troops were stationed in Manchuria in 1918, but after about 1937, this type of mobilization of Korean girls was carried out systematically according to Japanese army orders.

There were several reasons why Korean girls were the primary targets for conscription. Most of the girls were illiterate, but had received a strict Confucian education from their parents and believed that their chastity was more valuable than their lives. In light of this, the Japanese army knew that they could guarantee the fact that Korean single girls were most probably free from sexually transmitted diseases. This firm belief in chastity was the reason why so many girls threw themselves into the sea on their way to the South Pacific Islands or committed suicide by jumping off of trains into the sorghum fields of Manchuria. After the war, those girls who survived were left deserted, were killed off by the Japanese army, or were handed over to the United Nations (UN) troops. Many girls decided not to return to their home villages even if they had the opportunity to go back because they believed that their experiences were too shameful. The second reason why the Japanese army used Korean girls refers back to Japan’s ruling policy of Korea—discrimination. In fact, the girls and Korean men who were drafted for forced labor, including military attaches and soldiers, were treated poorly. That is, once they were no longer useful, they were discarded. The third reason that Korean girls were targets had to do with Japanese men’s deep-rooted prejudice against women. Aso Tetsuo, an army doctor during the Pacific War stated in 1939 that the “comfort stations” were a sanitary toilet for men, not a place of recreation, and in the case of Korean “comfort women,” this prejudice involved much more than just gender. The Japanese soldiers treated these women not only as sexual objects, but as objects onto which they could relinquish all of their pent-up repression that they had acquired from army life.

Many have asked why did it take so long for military sexual slavery to become an issue in Korea? After Korea’s liberation, there were rumors about Korean girls having been kidnapped and used as sex slaves. It was commonly thought that the girls either died as a result of having committed suicide or from the continuous rapings, abuse, and torture. However, nothing was officially reported about these girls. Because Korean society was in turmoil post-liberation, official documentation of the plight of Korean military sex slaves was hindered.

After the war Korea became a divided peninsula; Civil war broke out in 1950; the Students’ Reformation took place in 1960; Park Jung-hee’s military coup d’etat occurred in the same year ; and this was followed by the military dictatorship until 1980. There was continuous political and economic turmoil on Korean land. Dr. Yun suggests that if the same number of boys were recruited and were used in an inhumane manner (but not sexually), or if the girls had not been poor and illiterate, that the outcome may have been different.

Dr. Yun found that research into this topic was not encouraged or considered scholarly by her peers and colleagues. Dr. Yun decided to write a novel about the subject, but was confronted with an essay written by Senda Kako and found out that there was a possibility to do research concerning this issue. In 1980 Dr. Yun began searching for and meeting with survivors, collected testimonies, and did research in Burma, Thailand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Taiwan, China, Japan, and North and South Korea. She concluded that no ordinary human being with a consciousness could have carried out this kind of atrocious act onto another human being.

When the Japanese decided to surrender in August of 1945, officers of the Ministry of Home Affairs directed Japanese personnel to destroy all incriminating documentation. Bunpei Hara, then one of the four officers who issued this directive, is today the Chief Director of the “Asian Peace Fund for Women,” the fund established in 1996 to give privately-collected money to the former military sex slaves. Mr. Hayashi Keizo, then the head of the Personnel Department of the Ministry of Home Affairs, stated that these documents were burned until the UN troops arrived. Korean men who had been drafted into the Japanese army or for forced labor, also testified that the documents were burned on the front lines, at munitions factories, and at construction fields where they were stationed.

In June of 1990 the Japanese government stated at the budget committee of the Upper House that the Japanese government had nothing to do with the so-called “comfort women.” They claimed that brothel owners followed the troops with the girls. It was this statement that became the catalyst for the Korean Women’s movement and as a result the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery was organized.

To this day Japan has not recognized this crime or other wrongdoings officially. They have been denying, hiding, distorting, and working to destroy the solidarity of those protesting this issue. Japan did not let their own officials and parliament members know that the International Committee of Jurists (ICJ) had published a report about this matter. When the Commission on Human Rights of the UN accepted a report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Japan released information stating that her report was not accepted by the Commission. The Japanese government has established an “Asian Peace Fund for Women,” and it manages the office for this private fund, but they refuse to pay official reparations and admit to their gross violations of human rights.

The problem of “comfort women” is a complex, multi-sided issue:

  1. Violence against women;
  2. Discrimination against minorities;
  3. Genocide
  4. Forced labor; and
  5. Kidnapping minors.

After the war, only the Dutch cases were treated at the Batavia Military Courts. Had this problem been addressed in a court of justice and had the responsible parties been held accountable and punished, perhaps the sexual warfare situation in Bosnia and Rwanda would have been different.

To date, in South Korea 158 former “comfort women” have testified. All of these women are sick, suffering from more than physical diseases. These kind of physical and mental diseases are passed on to their offspring. It may be the diseases genetically carried over or the emotional pain and suffering that affects and influences their children. Dr. Yun is concerned about the impact of the psychological trauma and after-effects of the “comfort station” experiences. These women cannot accept themselves as ordinary, healthy, lovable women. Perhaps if the remaining survivors’ honor and dignity were restored, they could, in turn, restore their trust and belief in people. Perhaps they could learn to open their hearts.

To accept the money set aside in the Asian Peace Fund is to dishonor the Korean women who served as military sex slaves. To accept the money without an “official” apology from the Japanese government is to perpetuate the wrongdoing and continue the legacy of silence. How can we gain a proper understanding of our history without recognition of wrongdoing? How can we have truly have an equal and just relationship not only with Japan, but with the rest of the Asian region, or the world for that matter? Beyond all else, how can we attain the road toward social justice and truth? How can we even dream that we can live in a peaceful world?

These girls, these 14, 15, and 16 year old girls were so young, innocent, and full of life. These girls had dreams in their hearts as do we all at that tender age. These girls were human beings just like you and me. Yet they were denied the right to live as human beings. The responsible party, the Japanese government, will not acknowledge their responsibility and guilt. The recovery and healing process will be a long and difficult one. However, the surviving former “comfort women” have begun this process and many citizen groups and activists have aided them.

Dr. Yun said that the Japanese people have indicated that their government weakens from outside pressure. She wonders if there is any way that the European countries might follow the United States’ lead in not granting visas to Japanese war criminals and preventing them from entering their countries. Exerting international pressure may be the best strategy to get the Japanese to yield to the Korean demands and to take full responsibility for their actions.

Dr. Kim introduced Ms. Kyung-Shim Kim, a military sex slave survivor. Ms. Kim’s presentation was made in her native Korean, but simultaneously translated by Ms. Hijoo Son.

The year was 1943 and Ms. Kim was just 14 years old. She was playing Chinese jump rope near her house, but just out of the sight of her father’s watchful eyes. A truck appeared and the men inside offered her a ride, and she accepted. As the truck began to leave her village Ms. Kim asked for them to let her out, but they pretended not to hear her. She rode all night to a place that held many girls who were older than her. The older girls comforted Ms. Kim and advised her not to cry because the captors would withhold food and even beat her.

The next night the girls were transported again, this time by ship. The man in charge summoned Ms. Kim and promised to send her home. But when she appeared, he bound her feet and hands and threatened to throw her into the sea because she had made so much noise crying and being a nuisance. Ms. Kim begged him not to throw her into the sea, she asked him to spare her. He agreed and then sent her back inside the vessel. She remained locked inside for several days unaware of the passage of time. One day, she and the other girls were instructed to come out. They had arrived at a location unknown to them—Harbin, China. There were no family homes, only military temporary housing and soldiers. The people spoke a language that she and the other girls did not understand. She didn’t understand what was going on and why this was happening to her. That evening, the soldiers came to her, ripped off her clothing , and raped her. They treated her as less than human. She was terrified and it hurt so much. Her bladder became chapped and bled. But the soldiers did not care. There were countless times when she was not fast enough in taking off her clothes; then they would tear off her panties with their hands. She could not resist those sinister soldiers, as a result, she stopped wearing underclothes at night and only wore her dress. When it got to be too much for her to bear, she hid. When the soldiers found her, they would beat and starve her as punishment.

Ms. Kim longed to be with her family and in her homeland. She hung onto that hope and expectation and continued on with her daily chores and nightly horrors. The riceball sprayed with saltwater was her biggest joy and it gave her strength.

There was a pregnant girl. When she delivered the baby the nurse came, put the baby into a bag and took it away. The young woman who had just delivered the child was put to work immediately to be raped by the Japanese soldiers.

The girls were made to wash and reuse condoms. One day when the girls were looking for water to wash the condoms they came across a hand protruding from the soil. As they investigated further they discovered that the body was that of a young girl who had been with them just a few days before. The girl had a disease and the Japanese simply disposed of her by burying her alive. After that, each of the girls made a pledge to stay healthy and well so that we could return home and be reunited with their families.

Once, Ms. Kim attempted to run away from the rape camp, but unfortunately she ran to another Japanese controlled facility. She was questioned repeatedly and later sent to another camp to perform sexual acts upon the Japanese soldiers.

There were many Korean laborers in the new camp. One of the Korean men told the girls where they were being held and also told them that if they did not escape soon that they would die. That evening, as the rain began to fall, Ms. Kim escaped from the camp. When she reached the wharf she hid herself onboard the ship and rested for awhile. When the captain discovered her on board the ship he questioned her. She explained that she would do anything to get back to her home in Korea. The captain took her at her word and she became his slave. Although her nightmare had not ended, her situation had improved a little and that was enough to her hope for a better future. The captain introduced Ms. Kim to a man who owned a fishing boat. She was instructed to follow him. She continued to have the hope that this nightmare would end soon. After a month on the second boat she was left off on the beach. The man who brought her there told her to find her way when daylight came. She had been left off on a leper colony. She looked for help at the home of an older ill couple. They wrote to Ms. Kim’s mother to let her know of daughter’s safety.

Ms. Kim was reunited with her mother, but she was not able to return to her village. Her mother feared that the Japanese would return and kidnap her daughter again. So Ms. Kim was forced to go live with a close relative. Ms. Kim’s mother was forever damaged by the kidnapping and subsequent sexual enslavement of her daughter. She suffered physical and psychological damage as a result.

Although Ms. Kim eventually met a man and married him, her life has never been what it was meant to be. She has lived life in the shadows, hiding her secret deep within her heart. She has shed tears of blood for the mistreatment and the loss of her country, but she has never been able to cry out in pain. Her voice has been silenced. Her crumbling body and diseased uterus have never allowed her the joy of having a child. Her life has been hanging by a thread for all these years.

The Japanese government must take responsibility for the sins of its forefathers and the government must apologize for the situation to the survivors of the Japanese “comfort stations.” “Those responsible for war crimes must be punished and the nation must pay an indemnity for those crimes. Know this. Our memories are vivid, we will not forget, and we will not die. We will bear witness forever.”

Ms. Kim concluded her comments by asking the conference participants to help her attain the proper resolution for this crime; to ensure that the crime is not forgotten, but included in text books; and impose pressure on the Japanese to ensure that they take responsibility for these actions.

Dr. Kim next introduced Mrs. Jeanne Ruff. Mrs. Ruff also is a military sex slave survivor. Her experience as a woman in war is one of utter degradation, humiliation, and unbearable suffering. During World War II she was a so-called “comfort woman.” She was nineteen years old at the time when the Japanese troops invaded the former Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia). Together with thousands of other women and children she was interned in a Japanese prisoner of war camp for three and one half years.

Although many stories have been told about the horrors, insults, brutalities, suffering, and starvation of Dutch women in Japanese prison camps, the most shameful story is that of the human rights abuse committed by the Japanese during World War II. The story of the “comfort women” and how these women were forcibly seized and forced to provide sexual services to the Japanese Imperial Army has been ignored for nearly fifty years.

Why did it take so long? Perhaps the answer is that these atrocities were carried out against women. Women are always the victims of war. We have all heard it said “...they are only women and this is what happens to women in war.” Rape is part of war as if war makes it right. Rape in war is a power game. It is used as a reward for the soldiers. In some countries like Bosnia and Rwanda, rape also is used as a weapon.

It was February, 1944. Ms. Ruff had been interned in Ambarawa prison camp together with her mother and two young sister for two years. She was returning to her barrack after having completed one of her camp duties. A number of Japanese military arrived in army trucks. Everyone was expecting to be called for roll call, but for some reason a different order was given. All single girls from seventeen years and older were to line up. Immediately everyone became suspicious. There was an air of fear throughout the camp and some girls tried to hide. They were assembled in a long line and they trembled with fear as a number of the soldiers walked toward us. The troops would look the girls up and down, sometimes lifting their chins in order to see their faces.

After some discussion among the soldiers half of the girls were sent away. Mrs. Ruff was left standing with a still long line-up of girls. Her entire body trembled with fear. The selection process continued until ten girls were ordered to step forward. The others were permitted to return to their waiting mothers. Mrs. Ruff was one of the ten.

They were told to pack a small bag of belongings and report immediately to the front gate where trucks were waiting to take them away. They were not given any details. The girls, their mothers, and the entire camp protested, but to no avail.

Oppressed and bullied by the enemy, broken and enslaved helplessly by a brutal force, they were sheep preparing for the slaughter. The guards stood over them as they packed a few things. Mrs. Ruff packed her bible, prayer book, and crucifix. At that moment those items seemed to be the most important things. In a way she thought of those items as weapons that would keep her safe and strong. Flanked by guards, they were taken to the front gate to say their good byes. She and her mother could not find words to speak. Instead they looked into each other’s eyes and threw their arms around each other—in that moment it seemed as if they both died in the other’s arms. Six other girls joined their group. All sixteen young women were forced into the trucks and taken from the Ambarawa camp against their will. The young women huddled together in fear and for safety.

The truck stopped in front of a large house in a suburb of Semarang. Seven girls were told to get out (Mrs. Ruff was one of the seven). Each girl was shown her bedroom. That evening none of the girls could sleep, so they ended up altogether in one big bed—huddled together in fear and finding strength in prayer.

Everything was made clear to them on the following day. They were in Semarang for the sexual pleasure of the Japanese. They were told to obey at all times and they were never allowed to leave the house. In fact, the house was heavily guarded and trying to escape was useless. She felt her entire body tremble with fear. Suddenly her entire life was destroyed and collapsing under her feet.

The Japanese turned the front room of the house into a reception area. The girls were ordered to have their photographs taken. The photos were then placed on a bulletin board in the reception area. A woman showed up and the girls felt a momentary sense of hope. Hope that she would understand, hope that she would know how wrong this was, hope that she would save them. But that was not her purpose. She was there to make certain that the brothel ran smoothly.

Opening night arrived. They were all terrified and huddled together in the dining room. All of the girls were virgins and therefore knew nothing about sex. As they sat there waiting a terrible fear overpowered their bodies. To this day, Mrs. Ruff cannot forget or shake that fear. She knew that the only thing that could help them was prayer and so she opened up her prayer book and led the girls in prayer. As they were praying they heard the arrival of military troops. As the troops approached the house the sounds of crude laughter and boots clanging against the floor permeated the air.

Each of the girls was ordered to go to her bedroom, but they refused. Instead they stayed huddled together for safety. The fear that Mrs. Ruff felt is not one that is easy to describe. Even after nearly fifty years she still experiences this feeling of total fear going through her body and burning her up. It comes to her at the oddest moments—she might wake up with it in nightmares and still feel it lying in bed at night. Worst of all she has felt this fear every time her husband makes love to her. She has never been able to enjoy intercourse as a consequence of what the Japanese did to her.

The house was filled with Japanese. One by one the girls were dragged to their bedrooms. Each girl pleaded and begged for the troops not to touch them, but their pleas were met with forced sexual intercourse.

No words can be found to describe this most inhuman and brutal rape. To Mrs. Ruff it was worse than dying. After the Japanese Officer left the room her entire body shook. She gathered what was left of her clothing and ran off to the bathroom. She wanted to wash all the dirt, the shame, and hurt off of her body.

She found the other girls in the bathroom. They were all in shock and in tears. They washed themselves as if they could wash away all that had happened to them. After bathing, Mrs. Ruff went back to hide in the dining room. Unfortunately the night was young and there were many more soldiers who were waiting for “comfort.”

During the daytime the girls thought that they were safe, but that was not true. The house was constantly full and as a result they were raped during the daytime as well. As evening came a terrible fear overcame each of the girls. Each evening the girls would hide in a different place and each evening they were found, beaten, and raped.

On day Mrs. Ruff decided to make herself less attractive and cut off all of her hair. She thought that no one would want her, but instead she became something of an oddity and was more popular among the Japanese troops than before. As the months went all of the girls lost weight. They hardly touched their food. They shared their fears, pain, and humiliations. They were exhausted and their nerves were stretched to the limit. The complained regularly to any high ranking officer who would listen, but their pleas fell on deaf ears. Each time the Japanese troops raped her she put up a battle. As a result she was severely beaten and threatened with death. Finally, she was told to stop fighting or she would be moved to a brothel filled with native girls where the conditions would get worse.

One day a Japanese doctor arrived at the house. Everyone thought that he would be able to help the young women. When Mrs. Ruff spoke to the doctor he showed no interest, no compassion, and no apology. Instead the doctor ended up raping her on the first day of his visit. Prior to the doctor’s visit a back room had been outfitted with gynecological equipment. The girls were to be checked for any possible diseases. Each time the doctor visited the house he would rape the girls. He also would leave the door to the examining room open so that others could watch as the girls were being examined and raped. Humiliation was a critical component to their enslavement.

Anxiety was ever-present when Mrs. Ruff found out that she was pregnant. She was terrified. How could she possibly give birth to and love a child conceived in such horror. The other girls offered her support and advised her to tell the Japanese woman guard. The guard’s response to the pregnancy was to give Mrs. Ruff pills to induce a miscarriage, but she refused to take the pills. Eventually, the pills were forced down her throat and she miscarried shortly thereafter.

Although Mrs. Ruff was not certain exactly how long she had been held at the brothel in Semarang, it was at least for three months. During that time the Japanese had abused and humiliated her. They had stripped her of everything. They had taken her youth, her self-esteem, her dignity, her freedom, her possessions, and her family. But, there was one thing that they could never take away from her—her faith in God. That was hers, it was the most precious possession, and none could ever take it away.

It was her deep faith in God that helped her to survive all that she was forced to endure at the hands of the brutal, savage Japanese. Although she has forgiven them for what they did to her, she can never forget. Her deep faith has allowed her to survive the brutal rapes and the conspiracy of silence that followed. The Japanese instructed the girls to remain silent about their experiences. If they broke their silence retaliation would be taken against their family members. She never spoke about it with her family, although she suspected that they knew what had happened to her. She never spoke about to outsiders because the shame was too great. The burden of shame was reinforced by families, friends, clergy, and others. In short, the world was indifferent and did not want to know.

With such a conspiracy of silence there was no counseling for the military sex slave survivors. The young women were expected to go on with their lives as if nothing had happened. While the men wore medals, the women carried the scars.

Dr. Kim introduced the fourth and final speaker, Ms. Miki Veda. Ms. Veda spoke to the participants about the legacy of the oppressors. She explained that she lives in a system that still oppresses women, minorities, and others. Traditional female status is secondary. For men it is socially acceptable and expected that they will have outside lovers or mistresses. Ms. Veda asked “What does that mean for me? What kind of messages are we sending the young?” She was trying to understand from a feminist framework what responsibilities come with the benefit of socio-economic privilege.

She has found it necessary to review her own history and traditions. She wonders how women keep their identity as women in such a society. She looks at the kimono and sees its duality. That is, it is a male symbol of oppression and a female symbol of modesty.

Ms. Veda expressed her embarrassment by the actions of the “right-wing” Japanese movement. These individuals claim that the “comfort women” were paid for their services. They claim that it was a part of war. Ms. Veda’s own mother expressed her feelings of sadness, but quickly follow-up by saying that “...it’s enough already.” Although her mother recognized that what happened to these women was not their fault, she also did not want to hear about it.

Ms. Veda asked how are we educating our young people regarding sexuality and values? Do we listen to and hear these young women? As a woman this is not someone else’s story, but our story. Our story to understand and remember and pass on to our children.

This concluded the formal presentation period. There were follow-up questions put to the panelists.

Questions and Answers

If there had been a Tribunal or some other type of judicial vehicle 50 years ago could you have told your story?

Mrs. Ruff did report it, but she never got a response. The world did not want to listen.

Ms. Kim said that she would have spoken up if such a system had existed, but she did not have that option.

Dutch women reported the situation in 1948 and some of the guilty men were prosecuted.

Are there other reasons why Japanese soldiers were never prosecuted for their abuses against the Korean military sex slave survivors?

Some of the panelist and participants suspected that racism was and continues to be a factor in how the situation was handled or not handled.

How do the survivors want to shape this movement? How do we keep this issue alive?

For Mrs. Ruff every time that she speaks about her experiences as a military sex slave she thinks of it as an opportunity to educate others about the matter. Perhaps through education we may be able to prevent this from happening again.

Professor Yun explained that the Japanese government has not yet acknowledged wrongdoing nor have they apologized for their behavior. There must be an apology and reparations paid to the survivors and or their families. These experiences must be included in text books so that we may teach others how not to behave during war.

Have you been invited to tell your story to the military?

None of the panelists had ever received such an invitation, but all agreed that talking to the military about what happened during World War II to “comfort women” might be a good first step in preventing this type of behavior from happening again.

We need to identify the lessons learned so that we may apply them to current conflicts (such as in Bosnia, Croatia, Rwanda, and other lesser known areas).

The question and answer period was concluded and all attention was directed to the official Conference Listener, Dr. Mary Aquin O’Neill.

[Tape was inaudible—no comments captured]

 

Session II: Men, Women, and War: A Psychological Framework

Moderator: Dr. James Gilligan (Harvard Medical School)
Responder: Dr. Dan Creson (University of Texas-Houston)
Responder: Dr. Angela McCarthy (Dublin Rape Crisis Centre)

Dr. Gilligan was moved by the atrocities recounted by the survivors who spoke during Session I. He suggested that it is after hearing such accounts that people must talk about how these atrocities could have happened and also how we might prevent this behavior from happening in the future. Dr. Gilligan prefaced his presentation by indicating that his comments were developed as a result of 25 years of experience working with violent men in the Massachusetts penal and mental health facilities.

He suggested that violence is a public health problem and a preventative medicine problem. It is important for us to understand what causes individuals to behave in this manner. We also must be willing to listen to the perpetrators if we are to have any hope of preventing this behavior from occurring in the future. However, one’s ability to understand is simply an accounting of causes leading to a particular event and not an excuse or a suggestion that one should overlook or forgive the behavior.

There were several words that were used repeatedly when the sex slave survivors talked about how their oppressors made them feel. They were:

According to Dr. Gilligan, the ultimate and universal cause of violent behavior is a feeling of shame and humiliation experienced by the perpetrator. The perpetrator then imposes those feeling (shame and humiliation) onto someone else (their victims) in order to feel freed from those feelings. Rape is indeed one of the most shameful and humiliating acts that one can commit against another person. Dr. Gilligan continued by suggesting that given the patriarchal social and cultural milieu, there exists a sexual asymmetry. Men’s honor also is held hostage to their female’s sexual behavior (both willing and coerced behavior).

In a patriarchal society rape is used as a weapon of war and this is a strategy to humiliate the men of the oppressed group. Violence is primarily male behavior. Men are routinely honored for being violent and are criticized by being non-violent. Women are honored and dishonored based on their sexual behavior. Women are unable to be aggressive or violent in a patriarchal system.

Men are cast in the role of violence objects just as women are cast in the role of sex objects. Men also are the primary victims of physical violence (homicide, suicide, etc.) although females are the primary victims of sexual violence.

When one looks at the military system it is easy to see that the army is a shame-generating machine. Men systematically are stripped of dignity—the purpose of this strategy is to create an environment whereby men will attack and kill and shame the enemy. Dr. Gilligan explained how Iraq’s secret police were instructed how to treat the women of the enemy—“violate the women’s honor.” In that particular culture the honor of one’s family is embodied in the person of the female. Rape allows the perpetrator to strike at the very core of the enemy, particularly the males. Rapes are a male strategy of war. Because of the persuasiveness it is clear that this violent behavior is planned. In many ways it is similar to a ritualistic behavior.

The degree to which men feel vulnerable is reflected in how their women are treated and disrespected. Shame and dishonor are treated as if they were commodities to be exchanged. Shame often is used to mean sexual modesty. Frequently the word shame and the word genitals are closely linked. Dr. Gilligan gave a few examples of how this statement is played out in literature. Shame and genitals are linked in other ways in that the punishment for rape in some cultures is to shame the man and then to castrate him.

Respect is a critical issue for perpetrators. The currency of one who feels shame and dishonor is respect. Dr. Gilligan pointed to the bible story of Cain and Abel—Cain was disrespected by Abel and consequently Abel had to die. People who feel disrespected frequently exact a false respect from their victims.

Dr. McCarthy responded by talking about external inhibitors. She suggested that when there is a lack of external inhibitors one can expect attacks against others. On the other hand, when there are external inhibitors, the aggression is turned inward and is manifested by suicide.

In patriarchal societies the only role that women have is to bring dishonor to the family as a result of her sexual behavior. Gender roles have been constructed to allow for the male’s propensity for violence. Gender roles also can be deconstructed to prevent aggressive behavior.

One must consider the effect of group psychology and the effect of “peer pressure” on males during wartime. Women are perceived as peripheral. That is, men in armies use rape as an instrument of terror. Rape is the act of the conqueror and it is a strategy of genocide. That psychological permission is given through the absence of deterrents is of critical importance to the social and cultural complexity.

Dr. McCarthy ended with a quote that frequently is used as a mantra in military settings. The quote makes reference to the man’s penis and to his gun:

“This is my weapon, this is my gun this is for violence, and this is for fun.”

Dr. Dan Creson responded by explaining how violence is a process. It is a process that involves in-group and out-group behavior as well as survival. He continued by suggesting that it is important for us to know who we are and where we are. If this concept of in-group and out-group is true, then there is an inevitability of having an “other.” Typically, violence is performed against the “other.”

Dr. Creson suggested that there are various approaches that can be taken to reduce, if not eliminate this type of behavior:

Dr. Creson suggested that we must have some insight regarding how to protect people from violence. He cautioned the participants to take care not to lie or to be sentimental. We must be certain that the tragedy and horror is one element of the story and not the entire story.

Questions and Answers

What effect/impact do cultural aspects have on shame and keeping those feelings of shame sustained?

It takes a demagogue to sustain these feelings of shame. Hitler was homeless as a youth and extremely envious of those he perceived as “better off.”

One of the participants was disturbed by the statement that violence against women is pathological and somehow not considered wrong. She questioned the race and class implications of Dr. Gilligan’s research. She expressed concern about physical and psychological violence against women being excluded from Dr. Gilligan’s “shame” theory.

Violence against women and men is perceived as normal. From a medical perspective it is abnormal although socially it is not perceived as an extraordinary phenomena. According to Dr. Gilligan, certain individuals are more affected by violence behaviors: 1) the poor; 2) racial minorities; and 3) men.

These behaviors are a response to something. What are the social preconditions that support and encourage these behaviors.

One of the participants raised the concept of “evil.” Evil is an important element in understanding how and why these behaviors keep occurring.

Another participant challenged the shame theory in its application to racial minorities. During the Viet Nam war white, middle class males raped women whom they could not have possibly felt inferior to.

Why don’t the women in the families of the rapists take a more active role in preventing or challenging this behavior?

Dr. Gilligan suggested that women should take a more aggressive role in dismantling patriarchal systems. Dr. McCarthy pointed out that women in Bosnia and Croatia have mobilized to organize and form supportive coalitions to care for women.

The final comment was about culture. It is important to understand that culture is not ideology. The Gilligan model assumes a homogenous population. The concept of power is missing. If we can dismantle that power asymmetry, perhaps we can redefine and reconstruct and understand the problem.

 

Session III: Gender and Genocide: Lessons from the Holocaust and World War II

Moderator: Dr. Doris Bergen (University of Notre Dame)
Responder: Dr. John K. Roth (Claremont McKenna College)
Responder: Dr. Diane Caplin (Mt. St. Agnes Theological Centre for Women)

Dr. Bergen began her presentation by saying that issues related to sex are treated as private and taboo. The problem of silence and sensationalization is a particular challenge for this topic. One can find many sexualized, even pornographic representations of women and war, and women and genocide. We must be aware of what we are really doing; we must remember that the victims are human beings, real people. Dr. Bergen’s presentation is in three parts:

Historical

Was there sexual abuse of women in Europe during World War II and the Holocaust? If so, what form did it take?

Analytical

What insights, meanings can one draw from that history of atrocity and suffering? What potential exists for comparative studies and asking questions across lines of time and place?

Programmatic

What lessons, if any, does the past offer for our activism today?

Dr. Bergen suggested that if one were to look in Nazi empire for official policies regarding rape, rape camps, enforced pregnancy of women from populations targeted for destruction (Jews, Gypsies, people deemed handicapped), one would not find it. She continued by suggesting that a racist imperialism was in effect during the Holocaust.

Dr. Bergen indicated that sexual vulnerability and abuse is represented by a modest amount of documentation. There were records suggesting that there was an ongoing evaluation of the “racial desirability” of a pregnant woman’s fetus. If the child was perceived to be valuable, the woman was permitted to carry the child to term and then give the child to the SS. Other women were forced to abort their unborn children. This genocide was linked to gender, race, and ethnicity.

There was a desire on the part of the Nazis to dehumanize their victims. By treating these women as if they were less than human it made them likely targets for horrific torture, disdain, and humiliation. It was easy for men to carry out their sexual aggression if their targets were not considered human. Rape was used as a reward, to demonstrate absolute power, and as a means to vent male frustration.

There is a connection between genocide and misogyny. Women are targeted because of their ability to bear children or bring new life into the world. Women also are perceived as “soft” and therefore are responsible for making men less “hard,” thereby ruining men for all time.

Dr. Bergen pointed out that militaries and paramilitaries operate on a system of rewards and that armies as a social construction support and perpetuate sexual aggression. It is important for all of us never to forget these atrocities of war.

Programmatic Issues—Lessons Learned

Dr. Bergen’s final comment was that it is important to recognize the interconnectedness of our history. Only then will there be hope for a better future.

Dr. Roth responded by saying that as a man at this conference, he has squirmed in his seat. He pointed out that during the Holocaust Jewish women were in double jeopardy- first as Jews and second as women. Dr. Roth told the participants that he had five points that he wanted to make.

  1. Timeliness
    Dr. Bergen’s paper would never have been raised at a Holocaust meeting until very recently.

  2. Universalities
    The Nazi regime was anti-Semitic and genocidal. German women were expected to reproduce and Jewish women were prevented from reproducing. There was a mandate to “get rid of the Jews once and for all.”

    Jewish women were experimented on to explore new ways of preventing reproduction or they were used as camp laborers.

  3. Logic of the Final Solution (in-group/out-group)
    One needs only to look at the German euthanasia program (a program where Germans who were deemed to be unworthy to live were euthanized) to see how the in-group/out-group dynamic was played out. The Germans did not flinch in taking the lives of their own country men and women, they certainly had no problem in tormenting and taking the lives of Jews and other members of the out-group.

  4. Male Dominated and Male Instigated
    If men are the ones most likely to commit genocide, what if anything can women do?

  5. Do Perpetrators Have a Sense of What They Are Doing is Wrong?
    At some level the perpetrators must be aware of their acts

    Typically there is extensive use of alcohol before, during, and after abuse, torture, and genocide.

    The role of secrecy and peer pressure plays a part in how this behavior continues to occur.

    Dr. Roth concluded his comments by suggesting that if there is a sense of wrongdoing it is overridden in a number of ways. Somehow we need to find a way to shift the power imbalance so that these acts are not allowed to continue.

    Dr. Caplin responded that any sexual contact between Jews and German men was though to pollute the men. This theory of contamination did not prevent the sexual exploitation of Jewish women. The sexual humiliation of these women made it easier to kill these women. In order for to humiliate their victims, the Nazis first had to acknowledge them at some level.

    Dr. Caplin questioned the relationship between the German soldiers and their wives and girlfriends. She wondered whether men’s behavior at work could be different when they are at home.

    Dr. Caplin pointed out that military and civilian institutions play specific roles in perpetrating war time sexual aggression. Specifically:

    • military institutions are frequently hostile to women
    • higher education encounters are very aggressive and warlike
    • women must be careful that we are clear how history is defined and who defines the history

Questions and Answers

Are there images that we should be concerned about?

We must be careful about the racial, ethnic, and gender images that are portrayed—participants alluded to the images of the Asian female and culture and how American soldiers took advantage of those images during the Viet Nam war.

Why is there no representative of the military at this conference to answer some of these questions?

The conference participants agreed that hearing from a member of the military would have provided valuable input, but no such representative was invited.

What gets described and defined as sexual abuse?

A participant told a brief story of how sexual abuse is not limited to sexual intercourse or rape. The participant told a story about how a woman was prohibited from breast-feeding her baby. Her oppressors had bound her breasts to prevent her from feeding her child. Eventually, the baby died. This is a form of sexual abuse.

Who shapes male and female images?

Male superiority is affirmed through media images. We must not forget the role of the media in shaping and perpetuating male and female images.

How aggressive were the laws prohibiting Jews and Aryans from having sexual relations?

Aryan women who had sex with Jewish men were perceived to be permanently tainted. However, many Aryan men who were in mixed marriages were able to protect their Jewish wives.

What socio-economic and cultural constructions interact, influence, and perpetuate sexual aggression?

This question was not specifically answered. Instead a discussion about women’s responsibility for providing checks for men’s behavior. Why is it that women must always provide the moral checks and balances? Why can’t men challenge the behavior of other men?

Do the perpetrators know that their behavior is wrong?

It is difficult to believe that there is no recognition of this wrongdoing. There are parallels between sexual aggression during war time and sexual aggression during peace time and in the work place. It is important that we use the feelings that are evoked by hearing of these atrocities to mobilize people to action. We can help by providing information that gives them “voice” to combat or challenge the aggression. In many of the other conflicts, people were not aware of the sexual violence perpetrated against women. However, in Bosnia, Croatia, and Rwanda the media told the international community and still nothing happened—why?

 

Session IV: Sexual Slavery During World War II

Moderator: Dr. Yuki Tanaka
Responder: Dr. Katherine Moon (Wellesley)
Responder: Dr. Michiko Hase (University of Colorado)

Dr. Tanaka began his presentation with an explanation of how the “comfort women” system was developed. In 1932, comfort stations were set up primarily to prevent the rape of Chinese women, which was widespread at the time. Crimes were committed against the civilian women (rape), looting, and general destruction as revenge against the Chinese. Nearly 700,000 Japanese troops were based in China at this particular point in time. Comfort women were provided as a sort of leisure activity to the Japanese soldiers because they did not get any military leave.

The plan was to “recruit” 20,000 Korean women to attend to the sexual needs of the Japanese troops (this information is anecdotal since there are no written documents describing the plan). There was a type of ranking of the “comfort women.” Japanese and Dutch women were present to serve only the Japanese officers; while Korean and Chinese women were intended to service all of the other soldiers. In addition to the ranking of women, there also were several types of brothels:

The temporary brothels were ones where the women received the harshest treatment. The treatment was horrific in these brothels because they were operated without the permission of the Japanese hierarchy and consequently there were minimal, if any, checks on the soldiers behavior toward the women.

The “comfort station” system was quite elaborate and well organized. Senior staff officers originated orders to set up the brothels. Paymasters were trained in how to run and operate the brothels Consequently, the comfort station system was expanded and the women exploited.

The Japanese were concerned with the high sexually transmitted disease rate. They feared that the spread of disease could cause an epidemic in Japan after the war. Therefore the army doctors checked the “comfort women” on a weekly basis and the soldiers were provided condoms free of charge (although most of the soldiers did not like wearing condoms).

Racism helped make these women likely targets for sexual aggression and violence. Approximately 100,000 women involved as “comfort women” were in fact victims of aggression. There were several strategies implemented to acquire women:

The “comfort stations” represented organized exploitation of women at the hands of men. The sexual activity of men during war almost always involves violence against women. This is true because it provides men with a means of escaping their fear of death; it satisfies the soldier’s desire to dominate the enemy; and it is perceived as a means of affirming life. Typically, the more intense the battle, the stronger the soldier’s sex drive and rape warfare is a means to demonstrate their superiority and to overpower and self dominate.

Military violence against women does not take place only during war time, but also during relative peace time as is evidenced by the rape of a 12 year old Japanese girl by four American soldiers. Dr. Tanaka concluded his presentation by advising the participants to look at the very existence of the military and its role in sexual aggression.

Dr. Moon responded by saying that we must be careful not to “bash” the Japanese. It is important to look at these issues as “systems.” Prostitution and rape within a military system requires quite a bit of work. This system was highly constructed and bureacraticized and as such these systems can be deconstructed.

Dr. Moon indicated that she departs from Dr. Tanaka in that she believes that men can and do operate differently during war. Dr. Moon challenged the participants to investigate what alternative models can be constructed to prevent sexual aggression. Masculinity is about creating and maintaining order, discipline, and control. Militaries are in essence “order machines.” If we are to see the “cracks” in military systems we must draw attention to the ironies and the chaos. Systems are learned. National interests can have horrific consequences as is evidenced by Dr. Tanaka’s research.

Korean “comfort women” were instructed as to how to be better sex slaves. They were not to do or say anything that would bring shame on the nation-state. Is the Japanese government accountable? Of course it is! We can and should ask for and demand accountability and redress.

Dr. Moon concluded her comments by reminding the participants that the world is interconnected historically, geographically, and systematically. The trafficking of women and military prostitution spills over into civilian systems.

Dr. Hase responded by asking the question “What does it mean to be born into a country (Japan) that has a history and legacy of ‘comfort women?’”

Dr. Hase suggested that there is a universality of violence against women in war. She pointed out that sexual aggression against women is not unique to the Japanese military. There have been numerous cases of violence in other wars and conflicts. It is critical to explore and understand the specific system within which it occurs and more comparative research between racist ideologies and sexual abuse must be conducted if we are to gain understanding, insight, and develop strategies to prevent this aggression in the future.

Dr. Hase suggested that it is important to look at the relationship between the patriarchy and the state vis a vis sexual aggression as well as the relationship of the modern military system and sexual aggression. Specifically, what impact did culture and race have on the development and implementation of the “comfort women” system? How important was it that the Korean, Dutch, and Chinese women were not Japanese? It is possible that this was a contributing factor in the unspeakable manner in which these women were treated or is any sexual aggressive act unspeakable?

Dr. Hase concluded her comments by suggesting that it also is important to examine how the military constructs masculinity. The system is designed to encourage or even require:

Questions and Answers

What about gays in the military?

Although male bonding is encouraged in the military, the addition of gays in the military is perceived as undermining male morale, which of course is at some level related to male sexuality and aggression.

How does one interrupt this cycle of aggression?

As more women are enter the military it will be a particularly useful strategy to break, deconstruct, and reconstruct this male-dominated, aggressive system.

Even when all the survivors have died, the perpetrators must be held accountable. We must find a way to mobilize to achieve this goal. One participant suggested that militaries are set up to create inhumane men. Military systems are in the business of hate, war, degradation, and annihilation.

How do we break the cycle of brutalization?

Some participants had difficulty looking at this issue from a systems perspective because it would seem to remove human accountability from the equation. It is difficult to believe that putting more women in uniform will bring about the necessary changes in the military because the military supports and encourages male aggression. There must be a desire to change before a change in culture can occur.

How do we hold those who do harm accountable?

It is difficult to pursue and punish the perpetrators. The victims do not usually have a “voice” to bring about the enforcement of justice.

 

Session V: Sexual Slavery Today: Colonialism, Racism, Sexism, and Human Rights

Moderator: O Jae Shik (Korea)
Dr. Anne Barstow (USA)
Dr. David Kwang sun-Suh (Korea/USA)
Ranjan Solomon (India)
Dr. Yoon Soon Young (USA)

Dr. Barstow began her presentation by stating that “This was not a war between the army and the rebels. It was a war of the army over the women and children.” The use of the word “over” was meant to imply a sexual descriptor of being on top of in addition to over powering the people. She described a village in Guatemala where she conducted her research. The village consists of eight tiny huts and those huts make up the community today.

In 1982, women, children, and a few old men were massacred in the village of Rio Negro. The soldiers ordered the villagers to march up the mountain. Half-way up the mountain the soldiers stopped, played dance music, and forced the women to dance. Once they reached the top of the mountain, the one hundred and seven women were raped and then murdered. Nearly seventy small children died as a result of having their brains bashed, and eighteen older children were taken away as slaves. One of the survivors commented to Dr. Barstow that “... in Guatemala there is no respect for women or children.”

Dr. Barstow suggested that this massacre was no accident, in fact it was carefully planned. During the Guatemalan civil war nearly 440 Mayan villages were destroyed and its residents were murdered. Typically:

In fact, in many instances cutting off of the nipples or breasts was used as a form of sexual abuse and aggression. Destroying the Mayan people was deliberate, planned, and methodical. Dr Barstow noted the following:

Dr. Barstow concluded her remarks by telling the participants a story of a Christian woman who was guilt-ridden because she was unable to forgive the men who killed her husband and four children. The woman asked Dr. Barstow to help her with this dilemma. Dr. Barstow was unable to help her because she does not understand forgiveness of the unrepentant.

Mr. Solomon suggested that it might be wise to extend the definition of war. Aggression against women is a male preoccupation. There is a need to acknowledge that most of the current contemporary conflicts are in the third world. Women are always at the receiving end of struggle and resultant aggression. One is given voice only when one has a certain amount of bargaining power. Perhaps we should broaden the definition of sexual aggression to include women who have been oppressed and sexually brutalized from other parts of the world.

We need to examine the media’s role in defining and shaping issues, particularly those affecting women. We also need to examine the role that poverty plays in the aggression against women, particularly women in the third world countries. Mr. Solomon introduced the concept of “rape by obligation.” He suggested that poor women or women who are economically disadvantaged might be put in the position of being sexually aggressed.

Mr. Solomon concluded his presentation by posing a series of questions. Specifically:

Dr. Young raised the issue of the HIV and AIDS epidemic vis a vis those who are involved in the sex industry. The HIV and AIDS epidemic has encouraged child prostitution because it is perceived that young children are AIDS free.

Dr. Young pointed out that sex workers have been tortured and brutalized in the course of their daily work. Women must be a part of developing a solution. We must change how we think of women. That is, women are survivors and not victims. We need to look at peace through the eyes of women. In order to accomplish this we must identify and understand the interconnectedness of events. There are many United Nations conventions and agreements through which one can make governments accountable. We also need to open the door for men’s roles and promote gender equality and power parity.

Dr. Young suggested that there were specific areas of inquiry and action. We must address the problem of stigma and how it shapes political history after a war. We must think of rape as a form of torture in which sexuality enters. Finally, we must confront the economic nature of sexual slavery and the fiscal value associated with sexual exploitation.

Dr. Kwang sun-Suh explained that as a Korean man he experienced the Pacific war. He also noted that he was a student of Professor Yun. He was saddened that not a single Korean man wrote about the experience of having used the “services” of the Korean “comfort women.” Not only have they never written about it, they have never publicly acknowledged their involvement in this atrocity. Once more men speak up and understand their own part in this crime against women, perhaps the Japanese will be moved to take responsibility for their actions, apologize, and begin to make reparations to survivors of the “comfort stations.” In Korea, the KCIA enforced a law (national security) that prevented Korean men from talking about these events and experiences. This carefully orchestrated conspiracy of silence protects no one. In fact it serves to deepen the wounds and prevent healing.

Questions and Answers

How do we eliminate female sex slaves?

One of the participants suggested that men are war slaves and that we can not eliminate women as sex slaves until we eliminate men as war slaves.

What about forgiveness and retribution?

Mrs. Ruff described how she went to Japan to speak about her experiences as a former “comfort woman.” She acknowledged that a number of the Japanese apologized to her and she accepted their apology.

Another participant pointed out that Mrs. Ruff received an apology because she is a white, European woman. This would not have ever occurred had she been a Korean woman.

Someone suggested that we need to give Japanese and Korean men a forum to come forward to tell their stories, accept responsibility, and apologize. The Korean Council set up a hotline in Korea and in Japan to “allow” men to come forward and some men did so.

The question and answer period was concluded and all attention was directed to the official conference listener, Dr. Mary Aquin O’Neill.

Dr. O’Neill commented that there is something wrong with the way we present information to the next generation. She wondered where were the expressions of outrage on the part of the participants. As academics we must struggle not to sanitize or clinicalize the subject. Specifically, she believed that the depth of emotion was missing. She continued by stating that there is right and wrong, good and evil, and this dimension of our humanity must not be lost as we deal with these issues.

Dr. O’Neill spoke about the language of the spirit and of the soul as was evidenced by Mrs. Ruff’s refusal to sign legal papers presented to her by the Japanese and Ms. Kim’s refusal to accept monies from the Asian Women’s Fund. Dr. O’Neill concluded her comments by saying that it is difficult to strike a balance between rising to the universal, but not assuming that there is a universal experience.

 

Session VI: Rape Warfare: Bosnia and Croatia

Moderator: Philip Garvin (Human and Medical Development, London)
Dr. Dan Creson (University of Texas)
Ms. Aida Daidzic (BISER-Zagreb)
Ms. Edina Luksija (BISER-Zagreb)

Dr. Creson suggested that rape in Bosnia and Croatia has been of two types—incidental and systematic. Systematic rape was particularly practiced in the north. The women of the region, but particularly Bosnia are not a monolith. The women are quite diverse in their wants and in their needs and expectations.

It was the practice of systematic rape that was the mobilizing factor for initiating international humanitarian aid. The incidence of rape varied across the country. Certain areas were harder hit than others. The brunt of the trauma that resulted from rape was borne by the poorer, less educated women.

Dr. Creson concluded by questioning why this rape warfare strategy was developed. Did it serve to lower the morale of all of the people of Bosnia or was there some other reason. It has become evident that Bosnian women are strong and resilient. Although much was done to attempt to destroy them physically, psychologically, and economically, these women have endured and even triumphed.

Ms. Luksija helps the survivors deal with their emotional and psychological trauma resultant from the rape warfare. She doubts if these women will ever be able to return to their pre-war, pre-rape state of mind. Rape warfare in the Balkans involved:

  1. Military strategy;
  2. Torture; and
  3. Homicide and infanticide.

Ms. Luksija provided some background and history for the conflict. The perpetrators of the rapes were soldiers, paramilitaries, police officers, and civilians. Their strategy was to break into individual houses, traumatize the residents, and drive people away from their homes. They also would capture towns and villages. Frequently, they would separate the women and take them to another site for the purposes of rape. The perpetrators would hold the women in detention and on many occasions the women would be raped, impregnated, and held until their seventh month—when it was too late to obtain an abortion. It is estimated that nearly 30,000 women became pregnant as a result of rape warfare. The perpetrators would capture women and take them to rape camps/rape centers and would combine the rapes with torture and homicide. The ultimate goal of this behavior was to prevent victims from returning to their homes and villages.

Most of the rapes were committed by groups. Family members were forced to sexually abuse each other. These rapes were carried out with guns, sticks, broken bottles, etc. The victims of this sexual aggression ranged in age from 3 years old to 70 years old. This rape warfare strategy was perceived by many to be ethnic hatred sexualized. The rapes were a means of gender persecution. Healing and reconciliation appear to be a distant, perhaps even remote possibility in Bosnia.

Ms. Daidzic told the participants about a 16 year old who had been driven out of her house by the Serbs and held in a rape camp for four months. During the four month period she was raped approximately 80 times a day. Ms. Daidzic stated that the women were transported by busses and trucks, were taken to houses and were kept there for the purposes of regular, systematic rape.

There were several characteristics of the rapes:

  1. They were mass;
  2. They were public; and
  3. They were gang oriented.

Rape was a specific tool used to accomplish genocide. The purpose of the rape warfare was to humiliate, to maim, to hurt, and to break the spirit of the women and to convince them never to return to their homes. The rapes were carried out in a manner that was designed to make the women wish they were dead. The rapes were designed to damage the dignity of the people.

Ms. Daidzic concluded her comments by stating that there is a need to restore the dignity of the people and that justice must be done if healing is to occur.

Mr. Garvin said that he struggles to understand how this could have happened. He commented on how the academics in Belgrade engaged in revisionist history in that they created greater differences between and among the ethnic groups than actually existed. The leader of this effort was a very intelligent psychiatrist and as such his knowledge and skill made him extremely dangerous. The rapes were employed to terrorize, traumatize, and humiliate. Mr. Garvin expressed his concern that justice may be elusive in the Balkans as it was for the Korean “comfort women.”

Questions and Answers

Why didn’t the Serbs simply kill all of the non-Serb women?

Women were central to the conflict (1981—onward). In Albania, there were rapes of Albanian women. This is many ways was a preparation for what was to come. There also was a goal to make people feel confused about their heritage and social identity.

What kind of psyches do the perpetrators have? Who are these men? Who does this kind of thing?

These are not monstrous looking individuals, but rather ordinary people performing extraordinary evil acts. The participants were cautioned not to take anecdotal impressions and over generalize about social conditions of a people. for example, some participants suggested that there was an increase in alcoholism and domestic violence during the war, but this information was based primarily on anecdotal information and not hard facts.

Evil doers don’t necessarily “look” evil. Usually they look quite normal.

Serbs and others who lived outside of the Balkans would come to the Balkans as “weekend warriors” just to participate in wartime activities.

What about justice? Will there be any in the Balkans?

There is a perception that justice is extremely important, albeit in short supply. Many are not at all certain that justice will ever be done. Assistance will be needed for many years to come. More than 1 million people in Bosnia need psychological services, particularly crisis counseling, but the World Health Organization (WHO) has fiscal resources to accommodate only 2 percent of the population. We do not know what the protective factors are that foster resilience. Somehow if we gain a better understanding of these factors we may be able to help those individuals who are less resilient recover and eventually thrive.

 

Session VII: War Crimes and the Pursuit of Justice

Moderator: Sarah Maguire (Lawyer’s International Forum for Human Rights, London)
Madeline Rees (Lawyer’s International Forum for Human Rights, London)
Nancy Paterson (UN War Crimes Tribunal, The Hague)

Ms. Maguire suggested that addressing sexual violence during war can be a strategy of not looking at sexual violence in non-war settings. Sexual violence can be defined as the use of the female gender by males to control women if not by violence, then by threat of violence. Sexual violence:

We must never blame women who are in various stages of recovery. We must be careful not to suppress women’s “voices” about their experiences vis a vis sexual violence. Sexual violence is misrepresented and frequently trivialized. Sexual violence differs in war settings in that:

In war settings, sexual violence is handled by the international community, while in non-war settings, sexual violence is handled by the state. In both situations sexual violence is addressed by a community. Sexual violence must be recognized. Women are the largest single group to be victimized in a war situation. Failure to ensure justice is a further discrimination against women and humanity.

Ms. Maguire concluded her remarks by pointing out the commonalities of sexual violence against women. In cases of sexual violence, the very essence of the self is violated and dehumanized. However, once women begin to organize, the anguish subsides and healing begins.

Ms. Paterson stated that it was difficult to hear about the high expectations that conference participants had of the International Was Crimes Tribunal. She wanted to point out some practical issues surrounding the process of seeking justice. She explained that the tribunal was set up primarily for political reasons. This tribunal is different from Nuremburg in that:

Ms. Paterson explained that while she and others at the tribunal are hopeful that the criminals will be arrested and extradited to the UN, the International Tribunal is plagued with problems. Many countries have had to revise their constitutions to address how to extradite someone to the United Nations. There also are two systems—common law and civil law. Funding has been a problem for the UN The UN does not have a great deal of money and as a result priorities must be set for how the investigators choose and prosecute cases.

The investigators have had a difficult time in collecting forensic evidence. Most of the physical evidence is gone. Some evidence could be accessed through exhumations, but exhumations cost nearly $1 million. It is not a simple process to exhume remains. One needs trucks, security, sterile supplies, etc. There also has been a problem in finding victims/survivors. The UN has 100 investigators. A team is made up of four investigators, one team lawyer, and one team leader. NGOs have taken statements from victims and that has helped in terms of finding survivors, but the caseload is overwhelming.

There also is the problem of where to conduct the interviews. The investigators try to avoid places such as the police stations, refugee camps, a woman’s home—these places frequently were the sites for sexual aggression. When interviewing in another country it is critical to follow the rules of that country. Interviews take place using interpreters. The investigators are only able to interview a woman for one two-day period.

Ms. Paterson stated that there were problems with the witness protection program. Protection is not possible in the victim’s home country. This was evidenced by the murder of one of the primary liaisons to the tribunal last year in Sarejevo. Neither the UNHRC nor the ICRC will give support to the War Crimes Tribunal because they do not want to appear to be taking sides. Ms. Paterson concluded her remarks with the statement that with all of these problems one has to make tough decisions about who to indict. As a result, the investigators are going after the “big fish,” and the winnable cases. Consequently not every case will be prosecuted and not every woman who was abused and violated will be ensured justice.

Ms. Rees commented that it is extremely difficult to address discrimination when it has everything to do with culture. She talked a bit about power imbalance and the history of hierarchy in most societies and how women are the regular recipients of injustice and abuse sexually and politically.

Questions and Answers

You’ve given us a rather bleak picture of the barriers and obstacles to conducting these interviews and investigations. What does the UN have to offer rape warfare survivors?

The UN represents the interests of one country. Perhaps it is a mistake to expect anything from the UN Of course it is going to cost to prosecute. If the international community wants justice, the international community must pay.

Can we really distinguish between sexual violence in a military war and sexual violence in an economic war?

There is an economic dimension to ethnic cleansing and/or racism. The ideology of class is a critical element to this paradigm.

What is the statute of limitations for these war crimes?

There is no statute of limitations.

Given the limitations (fiscal, time, etc.) and given that achieving justice is an important part of healing from sexual violence. What is the best you can offer survivors?

Aside from pouring more money into the UN we can each declare that violence against women is unacceptable.

 

Session VIII: Men, Women, and War: What Does it Have to Do With Northern Ireland?

Moderator: Dr. Deirdre Mullan (Thornhill College)
Eilish Rooney (University of Ulster)
Carmel Roulston (University of Ulster)
Dr. Helena Schlindlwein (Derry Women’s Centre and Women’s Coalition)

Dr. Mullan stated that nearly 4,000 people had died as a result of the “troubles” since 1969. The military has long been a part of life for those living in Northern Ireland. Residents of Northern Ireland perceive themselves as members of a Christian community.

Dr. Schlindlwein’s comments were directed to how the “troubles” had affected her life. She remembered growing up in a violent household where she was brutalized by her mother. Her father became a political prisoner when she was 11 years old. She is a survivor of sexual abuse at the hands of two priests and by others who were connected to her household.

In 1996 she and other women went after the “political jugular” in that they entered the conflict in a different way—as mediators/intermediaries. This proved to be an important move because it served to:

Ms. Roulston explained that she came from a rural community near the border of the Republic and as such the issues affecting rural communities are generally not well represented. She commented on women’s political activism, identities, and women’s sense of belonging. She believes that women use different strategies of working together—women tend to use consensus and consultative approaches to problem solving.

Ms. Rooney pointed out that although Northern Ireland is relatively small and the casualties are less than in other conflict areas, they are none the less significant. She has become aware of her own acts of “othering.”

The Irish have a “habit of innocence.” Ireland has not had a colonial history. The Irish-American Diaspora has been extremely important in Northern Ireland’s development. The refuge of innocence is one offered to women in that they are frequently called upon to stop the violence that the men are perpetrating. This shifting of responsibility reinforces the belief that men are the agents of war and only women can be the agents of peace. It is important to note what the hidden scaffolding of intersecting oppression looks like. It is equally important to work at understanding and influencing the political positioning that takes place before and during conflicts. Academics create the language and thus the ideas around how roles are constructed and deconstructed. One must make certain to have input to that process so that women do not continue to be victimized.

Questions and Answers

How do adults handle how children perceive themselves and heal their hurts?

Children are voiceless in Northern Ireland. Some schools are attempting to help children through various programs to give them voice. We tend to pin a lot of hopes onto children.

Was there sexual aggression toward women during the “troubles?”

Yes. The threat of rape was a common strategy used during the “troubles,” It is important not to expect victims to carry the guilt or responsibility for what happened to them.

How have racial and ethnic minorities been treated?

During the cease-fire, racist attacks against minorities have increased (Vietnamese, Chinese, Indians, etc.). The homosexual community has begun to feel a bit exposed and vulnerable during the cease-fire. Some people believe that Northern Ireland is a racist, homophobic, and misogynist society. In many ways, the story of racism in Northern Ireland is just beginning. A race relations act has been adopted which may begin to address racial inequality.

The question and answer period was concluded and all attention was directed to the official Conference Listener, Dr. Mary Aquin O’Neill.

Dr. O’Neill wondered if there was a way to mediate between the two reasonings behind rape—power and shame. How does one address the desire for continuity and feelings of loneliness without sexualizing those feelings? Dr. O’Neill suggested that the temptation to use power for control is not gender specific because everyone has the capability to use power to control another individual. She also stressed that intimacy can not be purchased nor can it be forced. Intimacy requires time and vulnerability.

Dr. O’Neill commented that if to be a woman is to be defined as inferior, then why would we want to be associated with “them?” If we are to respond to the injustices around the world, we will need to share resources. Dr. O’Neill suggested that Ms. Paterson’s analogy to the two types of law might be applied to how men and women relate and interact with each other. We must be willing to hear and learn from each other’s language.