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CIAO DATE: 05/05
Asian Civilisational Dialogue Between India and China
Hu Yeping
India and China are once again entering an age of intensified economic and cultural interaction. Reviewing the pervasive influence of Indian metaphysical and moral thinking on China in the past two millennia will help the two civilisations to realise their complementariness and share their respective greatest values and intellectual assets.
A recent academic visit to seven universities across the Indian subcontinent manifested this land to be, as ever, one of profound philosophical thought, genuine religious belief, brilliant wisdom, extensive knowledge, and active intellectual life—not to mention beautiful saris and richly spiced food.
But, I believe I found also something new and exciting, namely, great hope and confidence in the people that they stand on the threshold of a new era in which poverty will be overcome, social equality notably improved and a creative partnership forged with other peoples for the betterment of all in this world. I am inspired by this enthusiasm and hope to explore how China and India as two great emerging civilisations might work together toward the harmony not only of our two nations, but of humanity as a whole.
Some 400 years ago, a Chinese scholar, Wu Chenghen (1500–82), wrote a classical novel entitled Journey to the West. It is so popular even today that almost every Chinese, old and young, man and woman, educated or illiterate, can tell many stories from that book. It recounts how during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), a Chinese Buddhist monk decided to go to "the West" to gather the Buddhist scriptures at their source. His dedication and determination touched the Lord who sent three figures (a monkey, a pig and a great fish) to help the Tang monk fulfill his task. During their "journey to the West" they encountered numerous difficulties and obstacles. Only after overcoming eighty-one hardships in their physical journey and process of enlightenment did the monk and his three disciples reach the western heaven—India—and receive the Buddhist scriptures. This story has a real foundation, for a number of Tang monks, now known by name, did make this journey. Some of the Buddhist scriptures they brought back are stored at a Pagoda in Xian, the capital of that period.
But this novel, full of vivid imagination and humour, is not only a literary treat. Still more importantly it gives rich insight into the possibility of communication and collaboration between different cultural traditions and civilisations.
In this regard I shall build my presentation on three interrelated issues: first, the discussion will be on the nature of civilisation. This has often been described as an object, or something outside of the human person. In reality it is cumulative experience of a people searching for the meaning of life through their particular history. Hence, we must locate culture and civilisation correctly in order to begin to address civilisational dialogue in its own terms. Second, by examining the historical integration of Indian Buddhism into Chinese culture, we shall look for the possibilities of mutual communication between the two great civilisations. Third, we shall see how today Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism in the Chinese cultural tradition and Hindu civilisation in India can be complemented by each other in order to face the current challenge of nation-building and economic development in both countries. This, in turn, can provide an example for the Asian people in particular and the world as a whole on how to engage in today's global context the many rich cultural heritages in a dialogue of civilisations.
The Nature of Civilisation
In looking for the source of the term "civilisation" many have used it in a chauvinist sense, thereby asserting the superiority of modern Western life over that of other parts of the world. This did happen, but it does not explain why even here the term used was "civilisation". The root of the term itself provides a more informative pointer, namely, to the life of the city (civis) as a concrete setting which, by drawing people into intense interaction, required that they develop modes and manners of living together. The term civilisation has been used for life in the seven or eight largest aggregations in the world, "the largest we," which are based on ties of blood and land, religion and way of life (Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilisations and the Remaking of the World Order, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996, p. 42)
These latter elements, religion and way of life, point, in turn, to cultures as the basic components of civilisation. Arnold Toynbee insists that for civilisation it is this cultural element that is essential (Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934–61). Any group of people must establish a pattern or style of life through accumulated experience in living together in their particular setting. Through this experience a people learns what promotes life and what destroy it, how to correct errors and how to respond to catastrophes. More deeply they gradually discover what is of value and worth seeking in life. Their concern is with the meaning of life, the exercise of their freedom and creativity, and the future of their children and grand children. As they order their preferences for modes of relationships and give priority, e.g. to harmony over competitiveness or vice versa, they develop a ranking of values. To this corresponds a distinctive set of virtues, i.e., strengths or capabilities. Together, values and virtues constitute what is called a "culture," that is a way of cultivating the soul, of living together and raising future generations (George F. McLean, Freedom, Cultural Traditions and Progress, Washington, DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2000).
In some contrast to history which records past events, good or bad, cultural traditions build on what is significant, necessary and good for hu-man life through time. Each generation reviews this heritage, adapts it and passes on what will be life-giving for its children in their new circumstances. Thus, the cultural tradition bears cumulatively each generation's commitment, passion and responsibility. It is the "living faith of the dead," and constitutes a rich source upon which one can draw endlessly for the meaning and significance that assures personal growth and social progress.
In sum, people are knit together by blood lines that connect families genetically and by fundamental beliefs which coordinate their outlook on the world and hence their responses to its challenges. Thus, notes Samuel Huntington in his Clash of Civilisations and the Remaking of World Order, "What ultimately counts for people is not political ideology or economic interest. Faith and family, blood and belief, are what people identify with and what they will fight and die for"(p.43). Civilisations as meaningful entities are then the way in which people see, experience and respond to reality.
Our concern here calls us a step further, for our intent is not merely to identify civilisations, but to relate to them. In this regard, recent work in phenomenology brings real hope for it points out that civilisations, while distinctive, are not fixed and set one over or against the other. Rather, they are patterns of human life and interaction, movable and evoking innovation and growth. Our experience of life manifests this temporal and historical character. What happens is succeeded by other events, in terms of which our prior experience can never again be seen in quite the same light. Hence, cultures and civilisations as they are lived are less unchanging blocks, than processes of becoming. They consist less in objects before us than in our total—including our emotional—response to the world; our outlook on life, in turn, is shaped less by the things observed than by living through them. Moreover, these two processes of experience and understanding are not so much separated as interactive in a spiral manner: understanding is shaped by developing experience, which in turn is shaped by progress in understanding. This is the double helix of experience (Ghislaine Florival, "Existential Rootedness of Culture and Worldwide Globalisation: Teleology and Reconstruction," Dialogue Between Christian Philosophy and Chinese Culture, edited by Paschal Ting, Marian Gao and Bernard Li, Washington, DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2002).
This means that as civilisations we are not set within cement walls which separate and alienate, but rather that we are forever and essentially in a process of developing interaction based upon the fact that the human person is distinctively relational. Persons and peoples live in relation to their world and to the people they encounter.
Culture focuses upon the creative spirit of a peo-ple and their abili-ty to work together to build all dimen-sions of life—material and spiritual, economic and pol-iti-cal, scientific and artistic, harmony with beauty and unity—and to share deeply in meaning and values. "Culture is a renewal, a reliving of ori-gins in an atti-tude of pro-found appre-cia-tion. This leads us beyond self and other, beyond identi-ty and di-versity, in order to com-prehend both"(George F. McLean, Hermeneutics for a Global Age: Lectures in Shanghai and Hanoi, Washington, DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2003). For that reason civilisations "survive political, social, economic even ideological upheavals" (F. Braudel, History of Civilisations, New York: Penguin, 1994). They are not stagnant but open-ended and ongoing, responding to human challenges, adapting to new situations and progressing both horizontally and vertically. In recognising the external, objective and physical, they take one deeper into the internal, subjective and spiritual where one finds ever unique identity in evolution.
In this evolving context there is new hope for a dialogue of civilisations for today we enter into a global age in which, no single person and even no people or civilisation is an island. If the human is relational by nature, today one is interrelated concretely with vast civilisations which had long been separated by vast seas, or in the case of China and India by soaring mountains.
The Integration of Two Civilisations
Yet, as exemplified in Journey to the West, we have managed despite all obstacles to meet in the past. For our purposes, in order to understand the possibilities of dialogue between our two particular civilisations it is necessary to examine how Buddhism, which came from India, managed to become an integral part of Chinese civilisation, and not destroy but reinforce it. If this dialogue of civilisations was actualised in the past, it may show us how it can be carried out today.
Buddhism was first introduced to China from India and Central Asia sometime during the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220). The Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty (58–75 AD) sent an envoy to the Western land to seek the Buddhist teachings and invited two Indian monks to establish a Buddhist monastery in China. As the Chinese historical annual reports:
Prince Ying of Chu State (the brother of Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty) has been reciting the refined teachings of Huang and Lao (the Yellow Emperor and Laozi are together revered as the founders of the Daoism) and has worshipped at the benevolent shrine of the Buddha. He has undertaken to cleanse himself and has fasted for three months, observing his vows to the gods. He has repented and should be considered to have expiated any crime he may have perpetrated or any suspicions he may have provoked. He is now, by way of atonement, submitting his property to add to the grand fete of the Upasaka and to the glory of the temples of the Buddha."
(Tang Yijie, Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture, Washington, DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 1991).
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Buddhism was considered a part or companion school of the native Chinese Huang-Lao Daoist teachings and practices and did not have much influence due to the other prevailing traditional Chinese philosophy, Confucianism. With the downfall of the Han Dynasty a chaotic period followed. China was divided into two regions, both of which were looking for something new to enhance their governing power. Interest in Buddhist thought spread to different regions of China and was accepted by the ordinary people as well as by governing official and rulers.
Borrowing ideas, concepts, rituals, terminology, meditative disciplines, institutional structures and literature and reshaping and adapting itself in a more attractive and friendly manner, Buddhism became part of the cultural mainstream together with Confucianism and Daoism in China. After several centuries of evolution and assimilation it began to develop distinctively Chinese forms such as: Pure Land Buddhism began by Hui Yuan (334–417), Chan (Zen) Buddhism founded by Hui-neng in 700, and Tien Tai Buddhism founded by Chih-I (538–97).
Prof. Tang Yijie of Peking University is the son of the great Buddhist scholar, Tang Yongtong, from whom he learned this history after such teaching had been officially suppressed. He devoted much of his life to studying how Buddhism was introduced and accepted into China and analysed this in detail in his work entitled, Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture. Let us summarise briefly his findings:
1. From examining in detail He Yan (190–249 AD) and Wang Bi's (226–249 AD) theme of taking nothingness as the origin of the Kong Zong (Emptiness School) from the Indian prajna teaching, Prof. Tang Yijie showed that at first Buddhism was grafted onto the body of earlier Chinese culture and did not have great influence. Only later did it gain popularity. His reason for this is that tradition is by nature conservative, which factor resists any foreign cultural influence. For that reason, what is newly imported must be grafted onto what preceded, and what is similar will first take hold. Only later will the innovations filter down and begin to transform the original culture.
A foreign culture must adapt itself to the requirements and demands of the existing culture and be grafted onto its body. Those elements of the foreign culture which are relatively close to or resemble the existing culture, will be easier to propagate; only then, will it be possible for the various parts of the imported culture gradually to penetrate the original culture and exert some of their own influence, until eventually the imported culture begins to transform and modify the original culture (Ibid., p.115).
2. From an analysis of the development of Wei-Jin's xuanxue (Daoist metaphysics), to Wang Bi's "taking nothingness as the origin", to Guo Xiang's idea of exalting being, and the Monk Shao's Indian prajna from the Buddhist teaching, Prof. Tang Yijie concluded that the potentiality for assimilation is greater when the new ingredient approximates a potential product of some aspects of the evolution of the original indigenous culture. This is because the element of continuity in evolution means that the new can take root if there is a corresponding potential in the original. In time it can become a new element and effect the development of the original culture.
Why was such a development possible? One may ascribe it to the demands or requirements of the heritage or continuity of cultures as they came into contact with one another. As long as the development of a culture is not drastically interrupted, what follows must be the product of a continuous evolution from what preceded it. The development of preceding ideas often would contain several possibilities, and the idea(s) which would continue to be developed, representing the subsequent parts of the development, would be bound to take the shape of one or another of these possibilities. If an imported culture can, on the whole, adapt or conform to a certain aspect of a potential or possible development of the original indigenous culture or fit into a trend or tendency of one of the possible developments, not only will it be itself developed and thus exert relatively great influence in itself, but it may even become directly a component part of the original culture and perhaps even to some extent alter the course of the development of that original culture. (Ibid. p.122)
3. Finally from a study of the Wei Shi School (vijnana, or Consciousness Only School), Prof. Tang Yijie concluded that in order for this potential to be realised on a lasting basis the new will need to achieve a higher level of development than the indigenous culture in order to serve as a stimulus and to affect that culture. Despite such superiority, however, the new must still subject itself to the old and fulfil the two preceding conditions.
Nevertheless, for a new culture, even one with a relatively higher level of development in reasoning, to have a great and long-lasting impact on the country (nation or region) to which it is introduced, it not only would have to subject itself to the limitations of the political and socio-economic conditions of the host country, nation, or region, but it must also be in possession of the first and second sets of conditions described in the afore-discussed sections, namely, to be grafted into what is similar and represent a potential development of that culture.
This is particularly true of cultures, especially if the original culture did not experience an abrupt and radical interruption, or if such an interruption was not caused by the introduction of the new culture. Only in such a way could the new culture affect the original culture in a profound and long-lasting way. Without these conditions, no matter how advanced or superior the imported culture may be, it would be difficult for it to strike roots into the soil of the host country and over the long run exert any deep influence. (Ibid. p.123)
From the three points outlined above, Prof. Tang Yijie concludes:
It is meaningful, at least in one aspect, to focus the comparative study of philosophies on the general and historical laws which govern the extent to which an imported culture may influence the culture of the country or region to which it was introduced, and on the conditions without which such an influence may not take place. Through comparing and analysing two different cultures from different traditions we should understand (1) the characteristics and level of development and reasoning achieved by the original indigenous culture, i.e. the host culture, and (2) the differences and similarities between these two cultures, their mutual influences, their assimilation and conflict, the amelioration of their conflict, and so on.
The introduction of Buddhism from India to China in early Han Dynasty and its subsequent development illustrates that the tendencies in the development of current world cultures manifest the dichotomy of conflict and harmony between and among many different civilisations. (Ibid. p.124)
The instability, contradictions and conflicts in the world today are ascribed, in addition to certain political and economic factors, to the differences of the many cultural traditions. As Huntington claims, after the Cold War, culture has replaced political and ideological power in the world order. Religion is crucial for "shaping the identities of people and aligning the states"; it is "the central defining characteristic of civilisations," and the foundation on which the great civilisations rest. Hence, the increasing frequency and intimacy of their intercultural encounter and exchange in this global age and their propensity for mutual interaction and influence, for harmonisation and assimilation, is very promising.
The Dialogue and Complementarity of Civilisations
In the light of the above considerations on the nature of civilisation and the principles of their interrelations, I would like now to be quite concrete and specific, using two philosophies in India and China in this analysis.
It is generally recognised that Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism are major factors in Chinese civilisations. They are interwoven but distinct from one another because each has its own characteristics and special focus. Some scholars claim that Chinese philosophy can be characterised as humanism, which is historical and social rather than speculative. Specifically, Confucianism, which has formed Chinese civilisation in general and Chinese philosophy in particular, stresses the full development of human beings through moral education and the establishment of an orderly hierarchical society, and its corresponding words and actions. As a dominant system Confucianism found a certain social order and its complex relationships. Each has its own role and the goal of life is to achieve harmony by acting appropriately in this role: "Let the ruler be a ruler, the minister be a minister, the father be a father and the son be a son." In fact this is not a mere matter of external relationship, but expresses a deep aesthetic sense of how the "great harmony" is expressed at every level and in every aspect of daily life from family home to imperial court.
Yet this does not adequately express the whole sense of life had by Chinese culture. For this reason when Lao Tzue went more deeply to articulate the "Dao" in Dao De Jing, he attempted to bring the individual into perfect harmony with nature through a mystical union with the Dao, through which one could transcend nature and even life and death. "The great Dao is so expansive. It reaches in all directions. All of individuated existence arises because of it" (Dao De Jing 34). Dao is both "what is" and "how things are", and transcends time, space, and matter; there is no Being behind the beings, Dao is both the One and the many. A "world" is constituted by "the ten- thousand things", which are beings themselves, and these beings are Dao.
For our purposes it is important to note that Daoism was recognised as filling a definite vacuum in Confucianism, not as negating it, but as supplying a missing dimension and therefore fulfilling the potentiality it had left unrealised. As a result, Chinese civilisation is not only Confucian, but also Daoist.
In fact, however, it is not only these two; as seen above, Chinese civilisation includes Buddhism as well. In its concern to free humanity from being trapped by visible possessions Buddhism developed in the direction of non-self, non-substance, non-being. As a negative mode, it proved to be an essential complement and fulfilment of Confucianism and Daoism. Thus, as seen above, it was accepted and integrated into the Chinese culture and civilisation.
Today, with the opening of China to the global horizon, the affirmation of the self has become an urgent need, but it remains necessary to keep this under control. In the past Buddhism has done so by its emphasis upon renunciation, but it is now necessary to assure a proper understanding and direction of its dynamic character. How to join these two? The response must be able to anchor the affirmation of the self in positive characteristics which will simultaneously direct its application along proper and constructive paths.
This leads us back into the roots of Buddhism, to its roots in "the Western heaven." These in fact are to be found in Hinduism which the great light of the Buddha protected by urging a necessary reformation of popular practice and a balance in high theory. These positive elements of Hinduism are classically stated as the characteristics of the Brahman, namely, sat (existence), cit (consciousness), and ananda (bliss). This is what had been left somewhat inevitably clouded in Daoism due to the limitation of the human mind, but which Hinduism through ritual and contemplation had managed to bring to vivid awareness.
Thus, more than retrieving mere texts, Wu Chengnen in his Journey to the West, was really and ultimately in search of this positive meaning in the Hindu roots of Buddhism. Vivekananda has stated this well for modern times. "Behind everything the same divinity is existing, and out of this comes the basis of morality. Do not injure another. Love everyone as your own self, because the whole universe is one. In injuring another, I am injuring myself; in loving another, I am loving myself" (Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta Philosophy, Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama, 2001). Love contains the quality of concern, sharing, sympathy, and compassion and enables one to act with dignity and decency. In order to be able to love one needs to be "deep as the ocean and broad as the skies." This requires one to have human excellence and such human qualities as tolerance, endurance, patience, kindness, honesty, courage, prudence and justice. Human excellence means that one should possess knowledge, faith and deep thinking. When one realises the Truth one becomes utterly fearless, gentle and compassionate, and at one with all. This is intrinsic value and the deeper spiritual excellence. On the other hand, one needs also to have the excellence of human creativity and initiative to add values to society. The combination of the two excellences empowers us to reason, to worship, to act, and to be. True compassion is to help and not fight, to assimilate and not destroy, and to harmonise and make peace. As Swami Ranganathananda says:
The only way to worship an infinite God is not to take a copyright on Him after your experience of Him through your religion, but to accept and respect the spiritual experiences of other religions also, in the knowledge that the infinite is inexhaustible. That attitude alone can make you not only tolerate other religions but also to accept them with reverence. This is mature Indian wisdom which alone can help to transform religions from mutually weakening colliding units into mutually cooperating dynamic forces working for human betterment and world peace (Swami Ranganathananda, Swami Vivekananda and Human Excellence, Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama, 2001).
This same principle works on civilisations and cultures as well. Especially today India and China, with their great population and vast lands, both developing rapidly their market economics, are both facing the challenges of the global impacts upon their traditional values. Hence, it is of great importance for the two countries to find a way to work together and complement each other from their rich cultural resources. If, as is often noted, India has deep speculative philosophy, and China has strong practical wisdom, then the two need to go hand in hand in order to build a healthy society for future generations.
Conclusion
The integration of Buddhism with the Chinese culture, as well as with others, such as Japanese and Korean, makes manifest the possibility of dialogue of Asian civilisations. It does not presuppose the universality of the whole, but rather distinguishes as unique Chinese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, Korean Buddhism, and so on. Precisely this uniqueness of each culture manifests the Oneness in a much richer and broader way.
However, there is a tendency for civilisations to clash in hostility, hatred, and chaos. And there is a possibility that cultures could constitute walls dividing us in isolation, alienation and confrontation, like the Berlin Wall in the past and the wall between Israel and Palestine at present. If we transform that danger of clash into dialogue or cooperation, and if we break the wall to establish a greater openness, we will have new and positive possibilities for our families, societies and civilisations. This generates hope for the future of our people, our nation and our globe. A common humanity needs a humane approach with the unique experiences and the many resources of its cultural traditions.
Asia as a continent has its rich natural resources; as a geo-political structure it has its strategic importance; and as a civilisation it has its long and profound history and cultural traditions. As Asians, we share spiritual values, historical heritages and religious sentiments; we have similar concern for family values, social harmony and sympathetic compassion; and we learn to use our knowledge and wisdom to search for sat, cit and ananda and to behold the true, the good and the beautiful.
Today the dialogue between Asian cultures remains as necessary and as potentially promising as ever. India enters into a new era, hopeful that it can manage to provide for the dignity of the individual (Preamble, Indian Constitution) and for this the productivity of its Chinese partner can be enlightening and stimulating. China, correlatively, is in search of its identity in a time of global competition and can find the roots for this, now as in the past, in the Hindu metaphysical and religious treasury.
To this end, in December 1999 as the millennium rose on the horizon, The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy (RVP) with the help of the Indian Council for Philosophical Research, brought a delegation of ten Chinese philosophers to visit six universities across India. Their goal was precisely that of the Journey to the West, namely to search out the Hindu roots of Chinese Buddhism. Upon this endeavour will depend the meaning of the lives of the Asian third of the human race.
This paper was presented at the international conference on "Asian Civilisational Dialogue" held in New Delhi, March 9–10, 2004. Gratitude is expressed to Professor L. M. Singhvi for permission to publish this paper in World Affairs. Also I would like to express my gratitude to Professor George F. McLean for his support not only in editing this paper but also suggesting insightful ideas.