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International Relations Theory and the End of the Cold War, by Richard Ned Lebow and Thomas Risse-Kappen, editors
2. The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War, and the Failure of Realism
Richard Ned Lebow *
Nation-states are engaged in a never-ending struggle to improve or preserve their relative power positions.
--Robert Gilpin, U.S. Power and the Multinational Corporation
The greatness of the idea of European integration on democratic foundations consists in its capacity to overcome the old Herderian idea of the nation state as the highest expression of national life.
--Václav Havel, New York Review of Books
The dramatic events of 1989 to 1991 are widely recognized to have ushered in a new era in international relations. Prominent realists maintain that a shift from bi- to multipolarity is under way in the international system. Some of them predict that a multipolar world will be more conflictual and urge states to acquire nuclear weapons. 1 Realists and neorealists alike argue that superpower behavior since 1945 is consistent with their theories. I contend that it sharply contradicts them.
I develop my argument by looking at realist explanations for three of the more important international developments of the last half-century: the "long peace" between the superpowers, the Soviet Union's renunciation of its empire and leading role as a superpower, and the post-Cold War transformation of the international system. Realist theories at the international level address the first and third of these developments, and realist theories at the unit level have made an ex post facto attempt to account for the second. The weakness of these explanations raises serious problems for the realist paradigm.
The realist paradigm is based on the core assumption that anarchy is the defining characteristic of the international system. Anarchy compels states to make security their paramount concern. Security is a function of power, defined as capability relative to other states. Drawing on the core assumption of anarchy and the self-help system it allegedly engenders, realists have advanced a variety of sometimes contradictory propositions about international relations. Realists disagree, among other things, about the relative war-proneness and stability of multipolar versus bipolar international systems, the importance and consequences of nuclear weapons, and, more fundamentally, about the weight of power as an explanation of state behavior. The competing predictions of realist theories make realism difficult to falsify. Almost any outcome can be made consistent with some variant of realist theory.
Operationalization
Testable theories require careful conceptual and operational definitions of their dependent and independent variables. These definitions must be conceptually precise and stipulate how the variables are to be measured or their presence determined. Realist theories do not meet these conditions. They do not share common definitions of the core concepts they use to construct variables. Individual definitions of national interest, power, balance of power, and polarity allow for an unacceptably wide range of conceptual and operational meaning and make it difficult to test realist propositions against evidence drawn from specific cases. Neorealism, the most scientifically self-conscious of realist theories, is particularly inadequate in this regard, as my critique of its explanation for the "long peace" will demonstrate.
Specification
Theories must stipulate the conditions associated with predicted outcomes. If the conditions are met but repeatedly fail to produce the predicted outcomes, the theories can be rejected. If predicted and unpredicted outcomes occur, the theories have been inadequately specified.
Power transition theories constitute the branch of realism that analyzes great-power responses to decline. These theories failed to envisage the possibility of a peaceful accommodation between the two poles of a bipolar system or that one of them would voluntarily relinquish its core sphere of influence to bring about that accommodation. Such an anomalous outcome constitutes strong grounds for rejecting power transition theories. Realists have sought to save their core insights by treating the end of the Cold War as a special case and reformulating their propositions to take it into account. 2 Anomalous cases often serve as the catalyst for better theory. But as the second part of my critique will show, realist attempts ex post facto to explain Mikhail Gorbachev's reorientation of Soviet foreign policy are neither logically consistent nor empirically persuasive.
Utility
Good theory is based on good assumptions. Realists maintain that their core assumption of anarchy accurately captures the dynamics of the international system and generates powerful explanations of interstate behavior. Some recent literature contends that the assumption of anarchy has no theoretical content and cannot generate useful or testable propositions. 3 I contend that international structure is not determining. Fear of anarchy and its consequences encouraged key international actors to modify their behavior with the goal of changing that structure. The pluralist security community that has developed among the democratic, industrial powers is in part the result of this process. This community and the end of the Cold War provide evidence that states can escape from the security dilemma.
A Critical Case?
At the final session of a 1991 conference at Cornell University on international relations theory and the end of the Cold War, a prominent participant expressed his dissatisfaction with the proceedings. The end of the Cold War, he insisted, was "a mere data point" that could not be used to test or develop theory. However, neorealism drew on a single case of bipolarity to construct its theory. If that case does not fit the theory, it raises serious doubts about the validity of the theory. Other realist theories have cast their empirical nets more widely. But the end of the Cold War and the ongoing transformation of international relations also raise serious problems for these theories. This essay does not test in a formal sense any of these theories; such tests are precluded by the lack of specification as well as by my own reliance on only a few cases. Rather, I will attempt to demonstrate that historical evidence since 1945 contradicts many realist claims and expectations and suggests the need for alternative approaches to the study of international relations.
Realism and the Long Peace
Security specialists consider it remarkable that the superpowers did not go to war as did rival hegemons of the past. Many realist theories attribute the absence of war to the bipolar nature of the postwar international system, which they consider less war-prone than the multipolar world it replaced. All of them have poorly specified definitions of bipolarity. None of the measures of bipolarity derived from these theories sustains a characterization of the international system as bipolar before the mid-1950s at the earliest.
For the sake of brevity, I will discuss only two realist theories that emphasize the restraining effects of bipolarity, those of Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz. They are arguably the most influential international relations theories of the Cold War era.
Measures of Power and Polarity
The first edition of Politics Among Nations (1948) coincided with the beginning of the Cold War; in that and subsequent editions, Morgenthau worried that the United States and the Soviet Union would stumble into a nuclear war despite their mutual recognition of its destructiveness. For Morgenthau, the long peace was not an analytical puzzle but a desperate hope. 4
Morgenthau believed that postwar international relations was shaped by bipolarity and nuclear weapons. Both were double-edged swords. Bipolarity was "a mechanism that contains in itself the potentialities for unheard-of good as well as for unprecedented evil." It "made the hostile opposition of two gigantic power blocs possible" but also held out the hope of regulating that opposition through an equilibrium of power maintained by moderate competition. Nuclear weapons made leaders more cautious and more insecure. The nuclear arms race reduced international politics to a "primitive spectacle of two giants eying each other with watchful suspicion." Human survival depended on mutual restraint. This was not a function of the international system's polarity but of the skill and commitment of leaders. 5
Drawing on Morgenthau's insight that bipolarity had the potential to promote a more stable international order, Waltz built a formal deductive theory of international relations. 6 In an effort to create a parsimonious theory at the system level, he gave explanatory weight to the nature of the system, the number of actors, and the distribution of their capabilities and downplayed the explanatory power of state attributes, including leadership.
Writing in the late 1970s, Waltz was struck by the seeming stability of the postwar order and the success of the superpowers in defying earlier predictions that the Cold War would sooner or later turn hot. He attributed the absence of war to bipolarity, which, he maintained, was less war-prone than multipolarity. Waltz argued that war arose primarily because of miscalculation; states misjudged the relative power or the power and cohesion of opposing coalitions. The latter error was more common because of the difficulty of estimating accurately the power and cohesion of shifting and often unstable coalitions. In a bipolar world, where hegemons rely on their own vastly superior power for their security, coalitions are less important, and "uncertainty lessens and calculations are easier to make." 7
Waltz regarded military technology as a unit attribute and outside his theory. He sought to minimize its consequences and insisted that the "perennial forces of politics" were more important than nuclear weapons in shaping the behavior of nations. Nuclear adversaries "may have stronger incentives to avoid war" than did conventionally armed states, but then the United States and the Soviet Union also found it more difficult to learn to live with each other "than more experienced and less ideological adversaries would have." 8
Waltz's Theory of International Politics has one major dependent variable, the war-proneness of international systems, that is explained by one independent variable, the polarity of the system. The theory resides entirely at the system level: war-proneness is a system property, and polarity is a structural characteristic of the system. Waltz is unyielding in his contention that a theory of international relations should not incorporate variables at the unit level or use system-level properties to predict the behavior of individual units. Bipolarity affects state behavior only indirectly by structuring constraints and incentives for leaders. 9
Many international relations scholars and historians contend that nuclear weapons have played a far more important role in preserving the peace than Waltz's theory acknowledged. Waltz has come to accept the contention of his critics. In 1981 he upgraded the role of nuclear weapons, arguing that they "have been the second force working for peace in the post-war world." In 1986 he conceded that the introduction of nuclear weapons, a unit-level change, had a system-level effect. In a 1990 essay, Waltz went further and argued that "the longest peace yet known has rested on two pillars: bipolarity and nuclear weapons." Nuclear weapons deterred attacks on states' "vital interests," and "because strategic weapons serve that end and no other, peace has held at the center through almost five postwar decades, while war has frequently raged at the periphery." Waltz reaffirmed this argument in 1993. 10
Waltz's 1990 essay argued that the international system was undergoing a peaceful transition from bipolarity to multipolarity. Neorealism recognized the possibility of system change--although not peaceful system change--but maintained that multipolar systems were more war-prone. While not rejecting this core proposition of neorealism, the essay indicated that it was no longer relevant. The long peace would endure because the superpowers possessed nuclear weapons. Waltz was arguing that nuclear weapons, by his definition a unit-level capability, can explain war-proneness, the most important system-level property. Such a reductionist argument vitiates the need for a theory of international relations whose principal purpose is to explain war-proneness. This may be why Waltz has subsequently backed away from his characterization of the international system as moving from bipolar to multipolar. Waltz now insists that the international system remains bipolar even after the breakup of the Soviet Union.
11
His depiction of the post-Cold War world as bipolar is strikingly at odds with the views of other prominent realists. More to the point, it cannot be derived from the definition of power in his Theory of International Politics. Even before the collapse of the Soviet Union, U.S. Defense Department studies showed that the United States, Japan, and Western Europe were steadily increasing their lead over the Soviet Union in the development and application of almost all the technologies critical to military power and performance.
12
Post-Soviet Russia is in a demonstrably weaker position.
What Distribution ? What Capabilities?
Realist definitions of power are imprecise, making it difficult to develop measures of polarity. The most thoughtful treatment of capabilities remains that of Hans Morgenthau. In his chapter in Politics Among Nations on the elements of national power, he reviewed the physical and political components of power. These include size, population, natural resources, industrial capacity, military preparedness, national character, morale, and the quality of diplomacy and government. The discussion is enlightening for the emphasis it placed on the less tangible and less easily measured political components of national power. Morgenthau was adamant that no one factor adequately captures the power of a state and castigated previous authors for this fallacy. Nevertheless, in his discussion of industrial capacity, he described it as the defining characteristic of great powers and of bipolarity. The Soviet Union, he insisted, always had the potential of a great power, but only became one "when it entered the ranks of the foremost industrial powers in the 30s, and it became the rival of the United States as the other super power only when it acquired in the 50s the industrial capacity for waging nuclear war."
13
Morgenthau's formulation of bipolarity offers little help to scholars interested in explaining the long peace. His equation of superpower status with "the industrial capacity for waging nuclear war" supports his judgment that the Soviet Union became a superpower sometime in the 1950s. There is a consensus among other realists that bipolarity and the long peace date from 1945. Morgenthau's characterization of superpower status is also vague because it leaves the threshold of nuclear capability undefined. If it is the capability to produce nuclear weapons, the Soviet Union could be considered a superpower in 1948. If it is the capability to produce significant numbers of nuclear weapons and the requisite means of their delivery, the Soviet Union did not achieve superpower status until sometime in the mid-1960s. Waltz's conceptualization of power is similar to Morgenthau's, from which it is derived. Like Morgenthau, he insists that states do not become superpowers because they excel in one category of power. Rank is determined by how a state scores on all its components: size of population and territory, resource endowment, economic capability, military strength, political stability, and competence. Waltz ignores his own caveat, however, and reduces superpower status to one component. "In international affairs," he writes, "force remains the final arbiter," and the United States and the Soviet Union "are set apart from the others . . . by their ability to exploit military technology on a large scale and at the scientific frontiers."
14
Waltz's use of military capability as the indicator of superpower status is puzzling. He is adamant that "nuclear weapons did not cause the condition of bipolarity." He insists that the world was bipolar in the late 1940s, when the Soviet Union had no nuclear weapons, and has not become multipolar since other states have acquired them. "Nuclear weapons do not equalize the power of nations because they do not change the economic bases of a nation's power." The superpowers are set apart "not by particular weapons systems but by their ability to exploit military technology on a large scale and at the scientific frontiers." Had the atom never been split, the superpowers would still "far surpass others in military strength, and each would remain the greatest threat and source of potential danger to the other."
15
Waltz seems to argue, like Morgenthau, that superpower status is primarily a function of advanced scientific and industrial capability. It is this capability that permits the superpowers to deploy
state-of-the-art weapons and to field large, well-equipped conventional forces. Nuclear weapons are a symbol not a cause of great-power status, and countries that develop these weapons in the absence of similarly advanced industrial and scientific infrastructures do not become superpowers. On the basis of Waltz's criteria, the Soviet Union was not a superpower in the 1940s. At the end of World War II, and for a long time thereafter, its gross national product was a fraction of that of the United States. In 1947 its industrial base and output were roughly comparable to Britain's--each produced 12 percent of the world's steel in comparison to the United States' 54 percent, and 12 and 9 percent, respectively, of the world's energy in comparison to the United States' 49 percent. Britain had more engineers, a better and denser transportation network, and a highly developed financial base.
16
Soviet technology remained backward. The Red Army was equipped with inferior weapons. Its triumph over Germany was the result of sheer mass and the ability of an authoritarian regime to mobilize almost all available resources for its military effort. The Soviet Union did not produce a jet engine until the late 1940s, and that was a copy of a Rolls Royce engine obtained after the war. It exploded an atomic device in 1949, but Britain also possessed the knowledge to produce nuclear weapons. What distinguished the Soviet Union from Britain was its population and size, but this had always been so and did not make the Soviet Union a superpower before World War II. The Soviet Union fielded a massive army, but it had proportionately larger forces than everyone else in 1939. The postwar Red Army was capable of little beyond its primary mission of occupation. American military estimates in the late 1940s depicted it as a poorly equipped, poorly trained, poorly led force without the logistical base to sustain a major offensive in Western Europe.
17
Until at least the mid-1950s, if not later, there was little the Soviet Union could do to damage the United States, while throughout this period it was vulnerable to nuclear attack by long-range American bombers. The Soviet Union remained a regional power until it developed a blue-water navy and airborne power projection capabilities in the early 1970s. By Waltz's criteria, the international system must be considered unipolar in the late 1940s. It did not become bipolar until the mid-1950s at the earliest. This was the assessment of Hans Morgenthau, who used a similar definition of bipolarity. It is also the conclusion of Peter Beckman, who carried out the most rigorous attempt to date to measure relative power in this period.
18
Combining scores for most
of Waltz's components of power, Beckman ranked the United States first in 1947 with a score of 53, followed by the Soviet Union and Great Britain with scores of 9 and 6, respectively. By 1955 the Soviet Union had begun to narrow the gap: the United States led at 41, the Soviet Union was second at 15, and Britain and West Germany each scored 4. The United States was still more than twice as powerful as the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had exploded a thermonuclear device, but it is questionable if it met Waltz's condition of being at the scientific frontiers of industrial and military technology. The year the Soviet Union acquired superpower status is unimportant. What is relevant for our purposes is that by Waltz's definition, the Soviet Union was not a superpower in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The great-power peace that survived the tensest stage of the Cold War--the years of the Czech coup, the first Berlin crisis and blockade, and the Korean War--cannot be attributed to bipolarity. In 1990 Waltz and John Mearsheimer argued that bipolarity was coming to an end or had already disappeared.
19
They predicted the emergence of a multipolar system with all its associated tensions or a system that would retain some of the benefits of bipolarity because of the presence of nuclear weapons. Their contention that the world was in the course of a system transformation was not derived from neorealist theory. If power is a function of size of population and territory, resource endowment, economic capability, military strength, political stability and competence, then in 1985, when Gorbachev assumed office, the Soviet Union could be considered a superpower. Neorealists certainly argued that this was so. By 1990, when Waltz contended that the shift to multipolarity was under way, the Soviet Union still arguably met these criteria. Its economy had declined, but its relative standing was the same, and its population, territory, resource endowment, and military strength were unchanged. In 1990 the world remained bipolar. In the judgment of many prominent realists, it was not until the breakup of the Soviet Union that bipolarity came to an end.
20
In 1990 Waltz and Mearsheimer each claimed that a system transformation was under way because of the Soviet Union's political and military retreat from Eastern Europe. Although this retreat was startling and dramatic, there are no theoretical grounds for using it as an indicator of a system transformation. By the criteria expounded in Theory of International Politics, it did not affect the distribution of capabilities. Neorealism, moreover, maintains that alliances are much less important in a bipolar world. The two hegemons were so
powerful vis-´-vis third parties that they did not need alliances to guarantee their security. Gorbachev's retreat from Eastern Europe might even be interpreted as confirmation of this proposition and as evidence that the international system remains bipolar. Neorealist theory would not expect a great power to behave this way in a multipolar world. Since 1990 the pace of change in the international system has accelerated. The Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union have ceased to exist. Post-Soviet Russia is a smaller, less populous state, consumed with the problems of political instability, ethnic fragmentation, and precipitous economic decline. Its leaders have sought aid from their former adversaries to build housing in Russia for troops to be withdrawn from the Baltic republics and requested technical assistance to dismantle old nuclear weapons for which the blueprints have been lost. The Kremlin no longer attempts to expand its influence but instead uses what little leverage it has to extract economic concessions from the West. Russia's nuclear arsenal remains robust--if considerably smaller because so much of it is in Ukraine or in the process of being dismantled--but its conventional forces have undergone a notable decline in size and effectiveness. Most armored divisions lack spare parts and effective maintenance, and much of the former Soviet navy is rotting in port and unable to put to sea. With the economic disruption that followed the breakup of the Soviet Union and the partial dismantling of its command economy, Russia has fallen further behind the West in the development and deployment of state-of-the-art weapons and has lost for the foreseeable future the ability to exploit military technology "on a large scale and at the scientific frontiers." Many of its leading scientists and engineers have gone abroad in search of employment. Waltz's 1993 article acknowledges that "no state lacking the military ability to compete with the other great powers has ever been ranked among them." He nevertheless contends that Russia is a superpower and the international system bipolar.
21
By any reasonable application of Waltz's criteria, the international system has shifted in the direction of unipolarity. Even this cursory review indicates that bipolarity cannot satisfactorily explain the long peace. When Waltz's definition of bipolarity is applied to the postwar international system, it lends support to Morgenthau's contention that the system did not become bipolar until at least the mid-1950s--after the most acute confrontations of the Cold War.
22
Different operational criteria of bipolarity do not
provide a better fit with the long peace. No single measure--or combination of the components of power identified as important by realists--indicates the onset of bipolarity in 1945 and its passing from 1985 to 1990. Waltz insists that the determination of polarity is a simple matter. "We need only rank [ the powers ] roughly by capability." The question of polarity "is an empirical one, common sense can answer it."
23
Yet differences among realists, and between the Waltz of 1990 and that of 1993 about when the international system became bipolar and when bipolarity ended (or if it did)--indicate that common sense offers no help in determining polarity. For this, well-specified definitions of polarity and measures of power are required.
24
Realism and Declining Hegemony
Realist theories are found at the system and unit levels. Realist and neorealist theories that attempt to explain the absence of superpower war since 1945 operate at the system level. Realist theories that predict the foreign policy of individual states operate at the unit level, and it is to these theories I now turn to try to explain recent changes in the foreign policy of one of the two poles of a bipolar international system. For realists, these two levels of analysis are distinct but related. Changes in unit-level behavior can alter the distribution of capabilities and by doing so change the polarity of the international system. A transformation of the international system will in turn have important consequences for unit-level behavior. Realism recognizes that great powers and superpowers can experience sharp relative declines. Some realist theories incorporate the Hegelian notion that successful expansion inevitably carries with it the seeds of subsequent decay.
25
All realist theories that address the question are unambiguous in their prediction that declining states, in the words of Kenneth Waltz, "try to arrest or reverse their decline."
26
Realists contend that states have no choice. Because of the anarchical character of the international system, they must maintain their relative power or risk being victimized by others.
Power Transition Theories and the Soviet Union
Within the realist paradigm, power transition theories focus specifically on the problem of hegemonic decline and its consequences.
27
Many of these theories argue that hegemonic war is most likely to occur when the power capabilities of a rising and dissatisfied challenger increase to the point where they approach those of the dominant state. They differ in their prediction about whether the challenger or the declining hegemon will initiate the war.
28
Not all power transition theories maintain that hegemonic decline will inevitably lead to war. Robert Gilpin argues that the first and most attractive response is to launch a preemptive war against the rising power while the declining state still has a military advantage. A declining power can also expand against third parties in the hope of obtaining more secure frontiers and thereby reducing the burden of defense. The Romans were past masters at this strategy. The Austrian and Russian empires tried with less success: their efforts to expand in the Balkans was a major cause of war in 1914.
29
Gilpin describes retrenchment as a more peaceful response to decline. A state can try to slow its decline and preserve the core of its power by abandoning some of its peripheral commitments. The Roman, Byzantine, and Venetian empires conducted strategic withdrawals at different times in their history, and Gilpin considers the Nixon Doctrine a possible modern analogue. Declining states can also retrench through alliance and accommodation with less threatening powers, sharing the benefits of hegemony in return for assistance in its preservation. Britain pursued this strategy with considerable success in the decade before World War I. The most difficult form of retrenchment is appeasement. It attempts to buy off a rising challenger through concessions. When appeasement conveys weakness, as it did at Munich in 1938, it can encourage further demands. Gilpin asserts that all forms of retrenchment are fraught with danger and less attractive than expansionist strategies.
30
War and Change in World Politicswas published in 1981. In analyzing hegemonic decline, Gilpin's focus was very much on the United States and the possible consequences of its continuing economic and military decline. He foresaw the possibility of a relative Soviet decline, brought about by an American resurgence and alliances with an increasingly powerful Japan, China, and Western Europe. He worried that a superpower in decline, facing the prospect of encirclement, would respond by behaving more aggressively.
31
Until the late 1980s, Soviet foreign policy appeared consistent with realist theories. Moscow tried to expand its influence in the Third World and consolidate it in Eastern Europe. Soviet leaders suppressed rebellions in East Germany in 1953 and in Hungary in 1956, invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968 to restore hard-line communists to power, and used the threat of intervention in 1980 to keep Solidarity from power in Poland. Under Gorbachev, Soviet foreign policy became increasingly inconsistent with power transition and other realist theories. Military
disengagement from Afghanistan, carried out in 1988-1989, could be explained as retrenchment at the periphery. The 1987 treaty on intermediate nuclear forces was problematic because it clearly was not motivated by a concern for relative gain. The Soviet Union agreed to remove many more missiles from the European theater than did the United States, and the treaty was widely interpreted as advantageous to the West. The Soviet withdrawal from Eastern Europe was more anomalous. Realists like Gilpin who recognize retrenchment as a possible response to decline expect it to occur at the periphery, not in a primary sphere of influence. In all of Gilpin's examples, states retrenched to marshal their resources against a rising challenger. The Soviet retreat, by contrast, appears to have been motivated by a combination of ideological and domestic political considerations.
32
The Soviet Union retreated from a region whose control had always been regarded as essential to blunt attack from the West. The communist governments of Eastern Europe faced opposition, especially in Poland, but were firmly in control until they were undermined by Gorbachev's calls for reform and his promise not to use Soviet forces to interfere with democratization. Gorbachev may have been surprised by the pace of change but not by its results. He and his advisers had began discussing the possibility of cutting loose Eastern Europe as early as 1987.
33
The Soviet retreat from Eastern Europe not only went far beyond any realist conception of retrenchment; it stands in sharp contrast to a core realist assumption: hegemons are expected to make every possible effort to retain their principal sphere of influence. This proposition can be traced back to Thucydides, from whom realists claim descent.
34
One of the most famous speeches in his history is the Athenian defense of their empire before the Spartan assembly. The Athenians made no pretense of their motives or the expected consequences of acting otherwise:
Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, and Leonid Brezhnev would never have made such a revealing speech, but it captures their motives nicely. Like Cimon and Pericles before them, they ruled their alliance-cum-empire with an iron hand for fear that any defection would put the alliance as a whole at risk and constitute an intolerable threat to their security. Realists accepted these Soviet concerns as legitimate, and many deemed preservation of the Soviet position in Eastern Europe essential to superpower peace.
36
How then can they explain the Soviet retreat? The Soviet response to relative decline confounds existing realist theories in other important ways. Instead of launching a preventive war, the Soviet Union sought an accommodation with the United States, its principal adversary and rival hegemon, and made concessions that greatly enhanced the relative power of the United States and its nato ally, the Federal Republic of Germany. Under Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin, Moscow has been content to play a subordinate role in international affairs.
37
The Soviet response to decline is not captured by any realist theory. At the very least, those theories are underspecified. They need first to identify all the generic responses of great powers to decline and specify the conditions under which each will apply. Until they do, the realist paradigm consists of a fundamental axiom--that the pursuit of power is the principal objective of states--and a collection of loose propositions and underspecified theories that attempt to apply this maxim in diverse and sometimes contradictory ways. This makes it impossible for realists to predict much of anything before the fact but all too easy for them to explain anything once it has occurred.
Realism After the Fact
Some realists contend ex post facto that Soviet foreign policy after 1985 was not inconsistent with realist theories and is a logical and long overdue response to the Soviet Union's economic decline. Perestroika and glasnost were intended to revitalize the economy and provide the resources necessary for the Soviet Union to resume the role of a superpower. Foreign policy was temporarily subordinated to this goal. Gorbachev withdrew the Red Army from Afghanistan, negotiated nuclear and conventional arms control agreements with nato, and retreated from Eastern Europe to free economic resources and labor for agriculture and industry. Withdrawal from Eastern Europe would also help secure loans and credits from West.
38
This explanation is not persuasive. If Gorbachev had been a moderate reformer whose foreign policy was essentially an extension of Brezhnev's, the same realists who now advance this explanation would have regarded Soviet policy as entirely consistent with their theoretical expectations. None of them would have insisted that the Soviet Union's relative decline demanded a leader who would introduce Western-style democratic reforms, hold relatively free elections, acknowledge the legal right of republics to secede from the Soviet Union, encourage anticommunist revolutions in Eastern Europe, agree to dissolve the Warsaw Pact, withdraw Soviet forces from the territories of its former members, accept the reunification of Germany within nato, and exercise restraint when confronted with growing demands for independence by constituent republics of the ussr. Such recommendations, let alone a prediction that all this would soon come to pass, would have been greeted derisively as the height of unrealism. Soviet foreign policy had been living beyond its means for a long time. Stalin, Khrushchev, and Brezhnev all pursued enormously expensive military and aid programs. Brezhnev did this well after the disparity between Soviet goals and resources had become painfully apparent. By the mid-1970s, the Soviet growth rate had declined to about 2 percent; by the end of the decade, growth had stopped. Throughout this period, military spending was relatively constant and consumed an increasing share of the gross national product.
39
How does a realist explanation that depicts Gorbachev's radical reorientation of Soviet domestic and foreign policy as a response to the country's declining economy account for the status quo under Brezhnev ? Realists might respond that their theories predict trends, not timing. Leaders and political systems vary enormously in their responsiveness to changing capabilities. Brezhnev was slow to recognize the country's economic problems and reluctant to initiate the necessary changes. As the economy deteriorated, dissatisfaction with the status quo mounted and facilitated the rise to power of a reformist leader. This interpretation is belied by the evidence. Brezhnev allocated enormous sums to the military, weapons research and development, and foreign aid in the hope of making the Soviet Union a global power equal of the United States. He was nevertheless increasingly disturbed by the downward trend of the Soviet economy and its long-term implications for the Soviet Union's status as a superpower. By the early 1970s, he recognized that the Soviet economy was performing sluggishly and that the gap between the Soviet Union and the West was likely to increase. He tried to rectify this situation
through a series of limited reforms intended to rationalize planning and investment. He also supported détente with the West to gain access to advanced foreign technology.
40
Brezhnev's strategy failed. Administrative reform and massive investment in agriculture accomplished very little. The cumbersome command economy, which Brezhnev and his colleagues hoped to reform and make more efficient, was the cause of, not the solution to, the Soviet Union's economic malaise. Détente also failed to produce the expected transfer of technology from the West; this was the principal reason Brezhnev was willing to sacrifice it in pursuit of unilateral advantage in the Third World. The stasis of Brezhnev's later years was not the result of political immobilisme. Far-reaching reforms or shifts in spending priorities would undeniably have antagonized some of the powerful interests, especially the military, that Brezhnev had initially co-opted to build and sustain his authority. However, Brezhnev had long since consolidated his authority to the point where he could have promoted major policy initiatives without fear of being overthrown. A more likely explanation is his inability, after the failure of his reforms, to see any alternative, or at least one that would not pose a challenge to the Soviet political system and the privileges of its nomenklatura In his last years, ill health probably also took its toll. Considering Brezhnev's goals and the constraints he faced, his foreign and domestic policies, while ultimately unsuccessful, were nevertheless a direct response to the Soviet Union's perceived decline. He attempted to manage that decline by strengthening central authority and providing the military with enough state-of-the-art technology to maintain the Soviet Union's claim to superpower status. To buttress Moscow's position in Eastern Europe, he sought and obtained Western recognition of the region's Soviet-imposed regimes and territorial boundaries. He allowed these regimes more latitude for economic experimentation, including trade and investment links with the West. A more persuasive realist argument would recognize Brezhnev's attempt to cope with the relative decline of the Soviet Union and depict Gorbachev's strategy as a more extreme version prompted by the bleaker circumstances of the mid-1980s. Certainly, the programs of the two leaders share many similarities. Like Brezhnev, Gorbachev sought to revitalize the Soviet economy through domestic reform and accommodation with the West while preserving the core of Soviet state structure--its command economy and all-powerful Communist Party. Gorbachev's more radical domestic reforms
and his accommodation with the West might be explained as a response to the further decline in relative Soviet capabilities. This interpretation of Gorbachev is equally problematic. The Soviet Union's economic decline was gradual if persistent during the years between the failure of Brezhnev's reforms and Mikhail S. Gorbachev's accession to power in 1985. Moreover, its relative decline was only marginal, because these were not years of great growth for the United States, which was itself a declining power relative to Japan and the European Economic Community. The sharp downturn in the Soviet economy came only after Gorbachev began his reforms, and largely as a result of them. The shadow of the future might also be invoked to account for the differences between the two leaders. Brezhnev was pessimistic but anticipated only a gradual erosion of the Soviet Union's relative standing. By 1985, on the other hand, the Soviet political elite regarded the future with deep foreboding; the economy had stopped growing--budgetary shortfalls were anticipated--and the cost of military competition with the West had increased. There were compelling reasons for Gorbachev to adopt a more radical, if risky approach to economic reform. Gorbachev was undeniably committed to revitalizing the Soviet economy. However, in his six years in power Gorbachev talked a lot about the need for economic restructuring but took few meaningful steps in that direction. Until 1989 he made no major cuts in defense spending. Between 1985 and 1989 defense consumed about the same percentage of gnp as it had under Brezhnev. After 1989 it consumed more.
41
Gorbachev never attempted to dismantle the command economy or to encourage private, capitalist ventures. He backed away from his most important initiatives in this direction when they encountered opposition from conservative party and public opinion. Until the unsuccessful coup of August 1991, he remained committed to the leading role of a reformed Communist Party in the political and economic life of the country. Gorbachev the reformer struggled to preserve archaic and dysfunctional domestic structures that stood in the way of the economic growth necessary to preserve the Soviet Union as a great power. The realist contention that Gorbachev's domestic reforms were "an externally imposed necessity" is conceptually and empirically flawed.
42
It is outside of any realist theory and not derived logically from realist assumptions. Realists who make the argument contend that decline can be a catalyst for change. Granted that this is a valid proposition, it is not a helpful one. The policies of Brezhnev and
Gorbachev indicate different responses to decline. Other possibilities include a more aggressive foreign policy--as predicted by most power transition theories--or an ostrich policy that denies the problem--the apparent preference of Russia's current "red-brown" coalition between former communists and the nationalist right. As mentioned above, to account for Gorbachev, realist theories would have both to identify the range of responses to decline and specify the conditions under which each is likely to be adopted. Even then, Gorbachev's foreign policy would still constitute a problem because it went way beyond the requirements of realism. In Eastern Europe, there was a range of options short of those the Soviet Union took (allowing pro-Western governments to come to power, dismantling the Warsaw Pact, withdrawing Soviet forces, and agreeing to the unification of Germany within nato). For example, Gorbachev could have permitted domestic change in Eastern Europe but made it clear that the Soviet Union expected postcommunist governments to remain within the Warsaw Pact. Far from opposing such a compromise, the United States and the European members of nato would almost certainly have welcomed it and displayed sensitivity to Soviet security concerns. Yet Gorbachev never seriously explored that option. On the contrary, in his famous April 1987 speech in Prague, he called on East Europeans to reform their own political systems and did nothing to dampen the resulting mass protests when they threatened the survival of many of the region's communist regimes. It is very difficult to reconcile Soviet foreign policy in Eastern Europe with realism. Neorealists might argue that alliances are less important in a bipolar world because the superpowers do not depend on alliances for their security the way great powers do in a multipolar world. But this postulate applied equally well to the Soviet Union of Khrushchev and Brezhnev, both of whom went to great lengths to preserve the Soviet position in Eastern Europe. In two Berlin crises, Khrushchev even risked war with the United States to shore up the faltering authority of East Germany's communist regime. Nuclear deterrence as an explanation is even more problematic. Some realists have argued that Gorbachev withdrew from Eastern Europe because of his confidence in nuclear deterrence; the Soviet Union no longer needed a defensive glacis to protect it from invasion.
43
But why then did Brezhnev invade Czechoslovakia and threaten to invade Poland to restore and preserve pro-Soviet governments ? Nuclear deterrence was a reality in 1968 and was certainly as robust in 1980 as it was in 1985. Nuclear deterrence is intended to protect a state or its protégés against attack. No realist contends that it is effective against internal threats to security arising from ideological or ethnic opposition. But this is a principal reason why past Soviet leaders maintained their authority in Eastern Europe. Before ordering the Warsaw Pact into Czechoslovakia, Leonid Brezhnev confided to Polish leader, Wladaslaw Gomulka, that all pact nations needed to participate in the invasion because in the absence of Eastern bloc solidarity, unrest might spill over into the Soviet Ukraine.
44
Brezhnev's remark indicates that Soviet leaders subscribed to a domino theory in Eastern Europe. They worried that the loss of any Warsaw Pact country would destroy the alliance and that the demise of the alliance would seriously weaken their hold on the western border provinces of the Soviet Union, whose peoples were unreconciled to Soviet rule and wanted independence or reunification with their compatriots across their borders. The events of 1990-1991 demonstrated the validity of Brezhnev's fears. The most fundamental tenet of realism is that states act to preserve their territorial integrity. Gorbachev's decision to abandon Eastern Europe's communist regimes wittingly called the integrity of the Soviet Union into question. It triggered demands for independence from the Baltics to Central Asia that led to the demise of the Soviet state. Soviet foreign policy under Gorbachev is outside the paradigm. To explain it, the analyst too must go outside the paradigm and look at the determining influence of domestic politics, belief systems, and learning.
45
The Emerging International System(s)
The Hobbesian world of realism recognizes only two ordering principles: anarchy and hierarchy. Unipolar worlds are characterized by hierarchy. Multi- and bipolar systems are anarchical, although there is likely to be more structure in a bipolar system because of the way each hegemon dominates its own bloc or alliance system. A tight bipolar world might even be described as two hierarchies competing under conditions of anarchy. Stalin imposed a tight, hierarchical structure on the Soviet bloc. The Western alliance was always much looser. Paradoxically, the hierarchy of both blocs began to decline almost as soon as the international system became bipolar in the mid-1950s. By the late 1970s, the United States was at best primus inter pares within nato. It had to negotiate changes in military doctrine, weapons deployments, and arms control policies with its allies, and consultations and negotiations frequently led to compromises that bore little relationship to the distribution of power within the alliance. The influence of the United States in nato and with many of its non-nato allies was constrained by norms of cooperation and consensus that benefited less powerful allies. On arms control and other issues, some of these allies also benefited from transnational coalitions that imposed constraints on the U.S. capacity to shape nato policy.
46
The international system is still technically anarchical because there is no enforcement authority. However, relations among the developed, democratic states of Western Europe, North America, Asia, and Oceania, can hardly be characterized as a self-help system. The allegedly inescapable consequences of anarchy have been largely overcome by a complex web of institutions that govern interstate relations and provide mechanisms for resolving disputes. These institutions reflect and help sustain a consensus in favor of consultation and compromise that mute the consequences of power imbalances among states. In the course of two generations, a community of nations has evolved that is bound together by the realization that national security and economic well-being require close cooperation and coordination with other democratic and democratizing states.
47
hegemon dominates its own In 1957 Karl W. Deutsch and colleagues developed the concept of a security community where "there is a real assurance that members of that community will not fight each other physically, but will settle their disputes in some other way." They distinguished between amalgamated security communities, characterized by the formal merger of two or more previously independent units, and pluralistic communities, in which separate governments retain legal independence.
48
There is good reason to consider the community of developed nations identified above a pluralistic security community. Since 1945 there have been no wars or war-threatening crises among its members. The most serious conflicts, over Northern Ireland, Gibraltar, and fishing rights in the vicinity of Iceland are testimony to the restraint of the governments involved. Contrast, for example, the Republic of Ireland's careful and largely constructive response to the troubles in the north with the more interventionist and escalatory responses of Greece and Turkey in Cyprus or Pakistan in Kashmir. Perhaps the best evidence for the existence of a pluralistic security community is the general absence of military plans by one community member for operations against another. In 1969, the Irish army developed a plan for the occupation of Northern Ireland, but it was shelved after a cabinet crisis.
49
Spain may retain an operational
plan for the occupation of Gibraltar, but Spanish military authorities insist that it is not an option they think about, plan for, or rehearse. Military planning among security community members clearly reflects the expectation that relations among them will continue to be peaceful. Many of these plans are collaborative and tested in joint exercises. This is most evident in the nato, but there is also close, if less publicized cooperation among the United States, South Korea, and Japan, and among the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Joint planning is only one of the military ties that bind together the members of the security community. They have also established many programs for common training and exchanges of military officers. They routinely share intelligence and have established bi- and multilateral agreements for the development of advanced military technology and weapons systems. In nato, officers of different nationalities staff commands to which member states contribute or earmark forces. France and Germany have taken integration a step further and are establishing a joint brigade, something that would have been unthinkable a generation ago. Within nato, the impetus for integration was twofold: member states were responding to a perceived military threat from the Soviet Union but wanted to prevent the emergence of a strong, independent German military force. The Soviet threat has disappeared, but nato governments and their publics remain strongly committed to the alliance and its efforts at military integration.
50
Defense officials and military officers indicate the widespread belief that nato contributes to European stability in many ways. They emphasize the political reassurance that military integration provides, especially to those concerned about Germany's role in Europe. Many also stress nato's contribution to building democracy in Portugal, Spain, and Greece through its efforts to professionalize and transform the
worldviews of their military organizations. They hope nato will play a similar role in the East.
51
Civilian and military authorities in non-nato members of the security community also speak of the continuing importance of military cooperation.
52
The nature and extent of postwar military cooperation and integration among the developed democracies are unprecedented. It is accordingly difficult to make confident judgments about their long-term political consequences. If analogies to economic integration are valid, military integration will create high exit costs. Cooperative training, deployment and coproduction of weapons encourage an economy of scale that maximizes the comparative advantages of participants. If integration has progressed sufficiently far, it may be extraordinarily difficult in the short term--and this is the critical time perspective in many conflicts--to disengage and develop equally capable fully national forces and the weapons industry necessary to support them. The very act of disengagement would sound a loud political alarm and encourage other states to take precautionary measures. It is also reasonable to suppose that military cooperation, like its economic counterpart, builds a greater sense of community among participants. Armies that train together, like companies that work together, develop profitable ties and even loyalties that they are anxious to preserve. The French experience is a case in point. After President Charles de Gaulle withdrew from military participation in nato, French military officials developed a dense network of informal links with their colleagues in nato and kept cooperation alive as far as was politically feasible.
53
Further evidence for the existence of a security community is the belief on the part of other states that such a community exists. In Eastern Europe, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland seek membership in nato and the European Community in the expectation that this will confer significant security and economic benefits. In the Far East, too, expanded efforts at multilateral cooperation in the economic and security spheres are under way. The pluralistic security community that now includes Europe, North America, Australia, and some of the countries of the Pacific Rim began as at least two separate security communities--Canada-United States and Norway-Sweden--and Deutsch and his colleagues count Mexico and the United States as a third.
54
In the first decades of the twentieth century, the Canadian-U.S. security community was extended to the United Kingdom and Ireland, and the Norway-Sweden community grew to include all of Scandinavia. By 1957, Deutsch et al. believed that the security community was developing in the wider North Atlantic area. From the vantage point of 1994, the North Atlantic security community appears robust. It is also growing larger, with the accession of Spain and Portugal. Pluralistic security communities also have developed between Australia and New Zealand and between Japan and the rest of the developed world. One large pluralistic security community could eventually encompass all these countries, much of Eastern Europe, some of the former Soviet Union, and the countries of the rapidly developing Pacific rim.
Deutsch and his colleagues found two essential conditions for pluralistic security communities: the compatibility of major values relevant to political decision making and the capacity of participating political units to respond to each other's needs, messages, and actions quickly, adequately, and without resort to violence. A third condition, the mutual predictability of behavior, was also thought to be important.
55
The most vital of these conditions is the first; shared values make responsiveness and predictability possible. The pluralistic security community of developed democracies is based on many common values and ideals. In a recent address to the General Assembly of the Council of Europe, Czech President Václav Havel identified the common values of Europe as "respect for the uniqueness and freedom of each human being, the principles of a democratic and pluralistic political system, a market economy, and a civic society with the rule of law. All of us [ also ] respect the principle of unity in diversity and share a determination to foster creative cooperation between the different nations and ethnic, religious, and cultural groups--and the different spheres of civilization--that exist in Europe."
56
The appearance and spread of security communities closely parallels the development of democratic institutions and successful market economies.
57
But the Deutsch formulation indicates that democracy and capitalism, though necessary, are insufficient conditions for pluralistic security communities. Responsiveness and predictability are also essential, and they are encouraged by greater political participation within countries and more intense personal and economic interaction between or among them. Cross-national interaction also contributes to the development of a common bond among different peoples.
58
Some of the countries of Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the Pacific rim appear committed to the development of pluralist democracy and free market economies. Their success would establish the essential precondition for a wider security community. To the extent that the principles that govern relations among the industrial democracies come to characterize relations between them and some or all of these countries, a single pluralistic security community could come to encompass most of the developed world. In its present or expanded form, it will coexist with the more traditional, conflict-prone pattern that continues to characterize relations among other former communist states (e.g., Serbia-Croatia-Bosnia, Armenia-Azerbaijan), among many less developed countries, and between them and the developed world.
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Adaptation Versus Learning
Realists and neorealists share a structuralist or positional ontology.
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Units precede the system and generate its structure through their interaction. Structure is the unintended by-product of unit interaction. It is immune to efforts to modify it or mitigate its effects. Once structure is formed, Waltz insists, "the creators become the creatures of the market [ that is, the system ] that their activity gave rise to." And this is why "through all the changes of boundaries, of social, economic, and political form, of economic and military activity, the substance and style of international politics remain strikingly constant."
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For realists, states cannot escape from the predicament of anarchy; the best they can do is adapt to the underlying realities of international relations. The predictive claims of realist theories rest on the assumption that states on the whole do adapt and therefore respond in similar ways to similar constraints and opportunities. Neorealism maintains that adaptation is facilitated by an evolutionary process. Like Darwin, Waltz assumes that the environment (or international structure, in the language of neorealism) rewards certain adaptations in structure and behavior and punishes others. Through a process of natural selection, well-adapted units prosper, and the unfit decline or become extinct.
62
For evolution to bring about a world of better-adapted units, the effects of natural selection must be cumulative. If giraffes with long necks have an advantage because they can reach more leaves, more of them will survive and reproduce. Their offspring will on average have longer necks than the generation to which their parents belonged, and the process will continue until the most advantageous neck length is reached. This is not true for states. Clever, adaptive leaders may mobilize their countries' resources and increase their power relative to other states. But their skills are not hereditary. Accomplished statesmen are just as likely to be followed by hacks or by leaders whose foreign policy is severely constrained by domestic considerations. Frederick the Great transformed Prussia from an inconsequential fiefdom into a great power. Bismarck and Frederick William IV made Prussia the dominant unit within an enlarged and extraordinarily powerful Germany. Kaiser Wilhelm and Adolf Hitler squandered Germany's resources and reduced its size and relative standing through poorly conceived bids for hegemony. Because bad leadership and domestic constraints are recurrent problems largely independent of the success or failure of the foreign policies of previous leaders, it is unrealistic to expect a significant improvement in the performance of units over time.
The twentieth century offers little support for the neorealist notion of evolutionary adaptation. We need only note one of the supreme ironies of neorealism: The previous system transformation, from multipolarity to bipolarity, was brought about by the blatant failure of key units to respond to structural imperatives. Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union were grossly inept in their foreign policies. Germany and Japan challenged powers whose combined strength was many times theirs. The Soviet Union helped to unleash the world's most destructive war by refusing to balance against Germany but bandwagoning instead, in the hope of making territorial gains. Britain and France were equally culpable; they neglected their military power and tried to appease rather than oppose both Mussolini and Hitler. If one or more of these states had been better adapted, the world might still be multipolar. Natural selection and interspecific competition do not require organisms to understand how they work. In fact, they work best when their mechanisms are unknown. This principle is well illustrated by the now-extinct Oligocene horned gopher, Epigaulus. In the mating season, males locked horns in combat, with the winner taking all the available females. Large horns seem to have conferred an advantage in combat, so larger horned animals reproduced, and over time the species developed larger and larger horns. The point was reached where the horns became dysfunctional: the gopher needed bigger and bigger burrows in which to hide and thus became more vulnerable to predators. If Epigaulus had recognized the suicidal nature of sexual selection by combat, females might have chosen their mates on the basis of different criteria. Such a shift would have required a relatively sophisticated understanding of evolution and familiarity with the fate of overspecialized species, and individuals would have had to develop a longer-term perspective on both themselves and their environment. This was impossible given the limited intellectual capabilities of Epigaulus. An understanding of structure creates the possibility of modifying it or of escaping from some of its apparent consequences. Human beings possess this capability. They have already affected the evolution of their own and other species in dramatic ways. Some of these changes are a direct result of our understanding of evolution. We have developed and maintain many farm animals and plants through selective breeding. Modern maize and camels cannot
reproduce without human assistance. Natural selection would have worked differently among humans if we did not care for or heal individuals who would not otherwise survive to reproduce. Modern technology raises the possibility of a more fundamental reshaping of our species through genetic engineering. Knowledge of structure and process has also enabled human beings to alter their social environment in profound ways. Smith, Malthus, and Marx described what they believed to be inescapable laws that shaped human destiny. Their predictions were not fulfilled, at least in part because their analyses of population dynamics and economics prompted policies intended to prevent them from coming to pass. A similar process is under way in international relations. Throughout the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century, the great powers behaved on the whole like Epigaulus. Then, prodded by the examples of two destructive world wars and the possibility of a third that would likely be fought with nuclear weapons, leaders sought ways to escape from the deadly consequences of self-help systems. They developed and nurtured supranational institutions, norms, and rules that mitigated anarchy and provided incentives for closer cooperation among states. Gradually, the industrial democracies bound themselves together in a pluralistic security community. Superpower leaders were also conscious of the destructiveness of modern warfare but nevertheless became entangled in an intense power struggle. In the late 1940s and early 1950s policymakers in both Moscow and Washington were pessimistic about their chances of avoiding war over the course of the next generation.
63
During these years, and again in the early 1960s, the superpowers came to the brink of war in tense confrontations in Berlin and Cuba. The Cold War and its sometimes tense aftermath were characterized by crises and arms races but also by attempts to reduce the
threat of war through accommodation, arms control, and reassurance. Soviet and American leaders gradually became convinced that their opposites were as anxious as they were to avoid war. Some influential figures in both camps came to the equally important realization that attempts to gain unilateral advantage through threatening weapons deployments invariably fail or even backfire.
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Through a series of small steps, the superpowers moved back from the abyss. With destiny. Their predictionthe advent of Gorbachev, they took giant steps. Human intellect and a mutual commitment to avoid war gave the superpowers and their allies the understanding and courage to escape from their security dilemma.
A bipolar system is defined by its poles. Because the Soviet Union and the United States repudiated the notion of international relations as a self-help system and changed the rules by which they operated, they transformed their relationship and, by extension, the character of the international system. Elite learning at the unit level had systemic consequences. Superpower success in escaping the security dilemma indicates that units are not always victims of some abstract, foreordained structure but instead intelligent, reflective actors who, by their coordinated behavior, can and have transcended the consequences of anarchy as depicted by realism. The postwar experience suggests that an atomist or transformational conception of structure is more appropriate to the study of contemporary international relations among the developed democracies. In this formulation, structure is both an antecedent and consequence of unit behavior. In the first instance, structure enables action and constrains its possibilities but is subsequently reshaped by that action. Language and its set of semantic and syntactic rules make certain kinds of communication possible. Speakers of any language gradually introduce new vocabulary and grammar and drop old words and forms: as a result of their behavior, the structure of the language evolves. Postwar leaders changed the structure of international relations by developing new institutions, norms, and rules. The altered structure encourages and rewards different kinds of behavior the way new semantic and syntactic rules facilitate a different use of a language.
Realism and the Future of Great-Power Relations
Realists maintain that this achievement is illusory.
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In the absence of a hierarchical structure, humanity is doomed to repeat endlessly the cycle of expansion and decline and war and renewal. Only nuclear weapons, some realists aver, hold out the possibility of preventing great-power war. The pessimism of realists derives from their view of the fundamental differences between domestic and international society. The former has a Leviathan. No matter how delicately governments encase their fists in velvet, they have the power to enforce their decrees and to maintain order. Such authority does not exist at the international level. I contend that the difference is overdrawn. Governments can only enforce laws and regulations when the vast majority of the population willingly complies. When compliance is absent--as during Prohibition or with current U.S. laws concerning marijuana and the fifty-five-mile-per-hour speed limit--law enforcement agencies are largely helpless. It is no exaggeration to say that
police authority has more or less ceased to function in many sections of American cities where their authority is viewed as illegitimate by citizens and is forcibly opposed by well-armed drug dealers. International relations among the developed democracies, on the other hand, has taken on many of the characteristics of relationships in domestic societies. An increasing number of states have begun to acknowledge the necessity of regulating their political and economic intercourse through rules, norms, and agreements. As in domestic relations, this high degree of compliance is motivated by enlightened self-interest. The concept of evolutionary structure recognizes the possibility of change in different directions. It may be that the community of developed nations will become more peaceful and generate structures that encourage peaceful behavior. It is also possible that unforeseen developments could bring about a return to a self-help system and the kind of behavior identified with realism. Only time will tell. International relations scholars who work at the system level need to recognize both possibilities and to develop the intellectual tools that will enable them to monitor the evolution of international structure if they are to make predictions based on it. Realism descends from a long and venerable intellectual tradition. Some of its most important twentieth-century luminaries like E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau embraced realism in the dark decades of the 1930s and 1940s because it appeared to offer the best hope of saving humankind from the ravages of a new and more destructive war. Contemporary realists remain committed to the goal of peace but find it difficult to accept that the postwar behavior of the great powers has belied their unduly pessimistic assumptions about the consequences of anarchy. Ironically, their theories and some of the policy recommendations based on them may now stand in the way of the better world we all seek.
The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the Hewlett Foundation and the United States Institute of Peace. I would also like to acknowledge the helpful comments of Friedrich Kratochwil, John Odell, Kenneth A. Oye, Thomas Risse-Kappen, Janice Gross Stein, and Stephen Walt. Back.
Note 1:
See John J. Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War," International Security 15 (summer 1990): 5-56; Kenneth N. Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, August 30-September 2, 1990. For an argument that the recent changes make realism and, in particular, realist scholars more relevant to the practice of international relations, see Stephen M. Walt, "The Renaissance of Security Studies," International Studies Quarterly 35 (June 1991): 211-39. For a critique, see Edward A. Kolodziej, "Renaissance in Security Studies ? Caveat Lector !" International Studies Quarterly 36 (December 1992): 421-38. Back.
Note 2:
See, for example, Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "The International Sources of Soviet Change," International Security 16 (winter 1991 / 92): 74-118; Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "Soviet Reform and the End of the Cold War: Explaining Large-Scale Historical Change," Review of International Studies 17 (summer 1991): 225-50; and the third essay in this book, Kenneth A. Oye, "Explaining the End of the Cold War: Morphological and Behavioral Adaptations to the Nuclear Peace?" Back.
Note 3:
See Helen Milner, "International Theories of Cooperation Among Nations: Strengths and Weaknesses," World Politics 44 (April 1992): 466-96; and Alexander Wendt, "Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics," International Organization 46 (spring 1992): 391-425. Back.
Note 4:
Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations (New York: Knopf, 1948). Back.
Note 5:
Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 4th ed. (New York: Knopf, 1966), pp. 347-49. All subsequent references to Morgenthau are to this edition. Back.
Note 6:
See Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979). Back.
Note 7:
Ibid., pp. 168. See ibid., pp. 169-70. See also Kenneth N. Waltz, "The Stability of a Bipolar World," Daedalus 93 (summer 1964): 881-909. On the question of the relative stability of bi- and multipolarity, see also Karl W. Deutsch and J. David Singer, "Multipolar Power Systems and International Stability," World Politics 16 (April 1964): 390-406; Richard N. Rosecrance, "Bipolarity, Multipolarity, and the Future," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (September 1966): 314-27; and Thomas J. Christensen and Jack Snyder, "Chain Gangs and Passed Bucks: Predicting Alliance Patterns in Multipolarity," International Organization 44 (spring 1990): 137-68. Back.
Note 8:
Waltz, Theory of International Politics, pp. 173, 174. Back.
Note 9:
Ibid., esp. pp. 123-28. Back.
Note 10:
Kenneth N. Waltz, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Be Better, Adelphi Paper no. 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981), p. 3; Kenneth N. Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics," third draft of a paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Society, San Francisco, August 1990, manuscript pp. 1, 13. See Kenneth N. Waltz, "Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics," in Neorealism and Its Critics, ed. Robert O. Keohane (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), p. 37; and Kenneth N. Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics," International Security 18 (fall 1993): 44-79. Back.
Note 11:
Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics" (1993). Back.
Note 12:
Statement of the Under Secretary of Defense Research and Engineering, The FY 1987 Department of Defense Program for Research and Engineering, February 18, 1986, 99th Cong., 2d sess., 1986, pt. 2:11; The Department of Defense Critical Technologies Plan, March 15, 1989; U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Arming Our Allies: Cooperation and Competition in Defense Technology, ota-isc-449, May 1990; and Aviation Week and Space Technology, May 20, 1991, p. 57.
Back.
Note 13:Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 114. For the components of national power, see ibid., pp. 106-44. For typical errors of evaluating power, see ibid., 149-54.
Back.
Note 14:
Waltz, Theory of International Politics, pp. 131, 180-81. Back.
Note 15:
Ibid., pp. 180-81. Back.
Note 16:
Statistics drawn from United Nations, Statistical Yearbook 1948 (Lake Success, N.Y.: United Nations, 1949), table 1. Back.
Note 17:
Matthew A. Evangelista, "Stalin's Postwar Army Reappraised," International Security 7 (winter 1982 / 83): 110-68. Back.
Note 18:
Peter R. Beckman, World Politics in the Twentieth Century (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984), pp. 207-9, 235-38. Back.
Note 19:
See Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics" (August 1990), pp. 1-2, 29; Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future." See also Christensen and Snyder, "Chain Gangs and Passed Bucks." Back.
Note 20:
Based on interviews with various scholars at the 1993 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1-4, 1993, and on a letter from Stephen Walt to the author, October 20, 1993. Back.
Note 21:
Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics" (1993), p. 54. Back.
Note 22:
Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 114. Back.
Note 23:
Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 131. Back.
Note 24:
The same point is made by R. Harrison Wagner, "What Was Bipolarity?" International Organization 47 (winter 1993): 77-106. Back.
Note 25:
Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987), are the two most prominent examples. Back.
Note 26:
Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics" (August 1990), pp. 7-8. Back.
Note 27:
This literature is reviewed by Jack S. Levy, "Declining Power and the Preventive Motivation for War," World Politics 40 (October 1987): 82-107; and Richard Ned Lebow, "Thucydides, Power Transition Theory, and the Causes of War," in Richard Ned Lebow and Barry S. Strauss, eds., Hegemonic Rivalry: From Thucydides to the Nuclear Age (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991), pp. 125-68. Back.
Note 28:
See A. F. K. Organski, World Politics, 2d ed. (New York: Knopf, 1967), pp. 202-3; A. F. K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chs. 1 and 3; George Modelski, "The Long Cycle of Global Politics and the Nation-State," Comparative Studies of Society and History 20 (April 1978): 214-35; William R. Thompson, ed., Contending Approaches to World System Analysis (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1983); Raimo VŠyrynen, "Economic Cycles, Power Transitions, Political Management, and Wars Between Major Powers," International Studies Quarterly 27 (December 1983): 389-418; and Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics. Charles F. Doran and Wes Parsons, "War and the Cycle of Relative Power," American Political Science Review 54 (December 1960): 947-65, argue that this is only one of the situations in which hegemonic war is likely. Back.
Note 29:
Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, pp. 191-92, 197. Back.
Note 30:
Ibid., pp. 192-97. Back.
Note 31:
Ibid., pp. 231-44. Back.
Note 32:
Based on interviews with Mikhail Gorbachev, Anatoliy Dobrynin, Oleg Grinevsky, Vadim Zagladin, and Georgyi Shakhnazarov. See also Robert Herman, "Ideas, Institutions and the Reconceptualization of Interests: The Political and Intellectual Origins of New Thinking in Soviet Foreign Policy" (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1994). Back.
Note 34:
On the analogy, see Richard Ned Lebow, "Superpower Management of Security Alliances: The Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact," in The Future of European Alliance Systems, ed. Arlene Idol Broadhurst (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1982), pp. 185-236; and the following three chapters in Richard Ned Lebow and Barry S. Strauss, eds., Hegemonic Rivalry: From Thucydides to the Nuclear Age (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991): Robert Gilpin, "Peloponnesian War and Cold War," pp. 31-52; Lebow, "Thucydides, Power Transition, and the Causes of War," pp. 125-68; and Matthew A. Evangelista, "Democracies, Authoritarian States, and International Conflict," pp. 213-34. Back.
Note 35:
Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, trans. Richard Crawley (New York: Random House, 1982), p. 44. Gilpin cites this paragraph in support of his own argument; see Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, p. 207. Back.
Note 36:
See John Lewis Gaddis, "One Germany--in Both Alliances," New York Times, March 21, 1990; Stephen M. Walt, "The Case for Finite Containment: Analyzing U.S. Grand Strategy," International Securi
ty 14 (summer 1989): 5-49; Lawrence Eagleburger, speech at Georgetown University, September 13, 1989, reprinted in the New York Times, September 16, 1989, pp. A1, 6; and Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future." The last argues that because the West wants to maintain the peace, "it therefore has an interest in maintaining the Cold War order, and hence has an interest in the continuation of the Cold War confrontation; developments that threaten to end it are dangerous" (p. 52). Back.
Note 37:
For a description of the several post-Cold War schools of foreign policy that have developed in Russia, see Alexei G. Arbatov, "Russia's Foreign Policy Alternatives," International Security 18 (fall 1973): 5-43. For the views of critics of the Gorbachev-Yeltsin accommodation with the West, see the interviews in David Remnick, Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire (New York: Random House, 1993). Back.
Note 38:
See Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future," pp. 53-54; Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics" (August 1990), p. 8; Valerie Bunce, "Soviet Decline as a Regional Hegemon: the Gorbachev Regime and Eastern Europe," Eastern European Politics and Societies 3 (spring 1989): 235-67; Valerie Bunce, "The Soviet Union Under Gorbachev: Ending Stalinism and Ending the Cold War," International Journal 46 (spring 1991): 220-41; and Oye, "Explaining the End of the Cold War." Back.
Note 39:
On the Soviet economy and military spending in the 1970s, see U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, cia Estimates of Soviet Defense Spending (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1980); and Franklyn D. Holzman, "Politics and Guesswork: cia and dia Estimates of Soviet Military Spending," International Security 14 (fall 1989): 101-31. Back.
Note 40:
On Brezhnev and his response to the Soviet Union's economic problems, see George W. Breslauer, Khrushchev and Brezhnev as Leaders: Building Authority in Soviet Politics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1982), pp. 137-268; Harry Gelman, The Brezhnev Politburo and the Decline of Détente (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984); and Richard Anderson, "Competitive Politics and Soviet Foreign Policy: Authority-Building and Bargaining in the Brezhnev Politburo" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1989). Back.
Note 41:
Evangelista, "Stalin's Postwar Army Reappraised." Back.
Note 42:
Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics" (August 1990), p. 8. Back.
Note 43:
See Oye, "Explaining the End of the Cold War," for such an argument. Back.
Note 44:
See New York Times, August 28, 1980, p. A4. Back.
Note 45:
For attempts at such explanations, see Richard Ned Lebow, "The Search for Accommodation: Gorbachev in Comparative Perspective"; and Janice Gross Stein, "Political Learning by Doing: Gorbachev as Uncommitted Thinker and Motivated Learner," the seventh and ninth essays in this book. Back.
Note 46:
See, for example, Douglas Stuart and William Tow, The Limits of Alliance: nato Out-of-Area Problems Since 1949 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Thomas Risse-Kappen, The Zero Option: inf, West Germany, and Arms Control (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1988); and Richard C. Eichenberg, "Dual Track and Double Trouble: The Two-Level Politics of inf," in Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics, ed. Peter B. Evans, Harold K. Jacobson, and Robert D. Putnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 45-76. Back.
Note 47:
I include the following countries in this community: Iceland, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Canada, the United States, Mexico, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand. Back.
Note 48:
Karl W. Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), pp. 5-6. Back.
Note 49:
The Irish Army's plan called for a border incident to be staged as the pretext for invasion. A Republic ambulance, requested by a Catholic physician in Londonderry, was to be fired on while crossing the Craigavon Bridge. In response, the Sixth Brigade of the Irish Army was to secure the bridge and march into Londonderry. Meanwhile, an armored column would cross into the southern corner of Ulster and strike at Lurgan and Toome Bridge, cutting off Belfast from the rest of Ulster. The two forces were then to link up and "liberate" Belfast. The plan assumed noninterference by the British Army ! See Richard Ned Lebow, "Ireland," in Divided Nations in a Divided World, ed. Gregory Henderson, Richard Ned Lebow, and John G. Stoessinger (New York: David McKay, 1974), p. 247. For the cabinet crisis, see ibid., p. 264. Back.
Note 50:
See nato Heads of Government, "Copenhagen Declaration," June 7, 1991; "New Strategic Concept," communiqué of the nato summit, Rome, November 8, 1991; final communiqué of the ministerial meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Athens, Greece, June 10, 1993; statement issued at the meeting of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council in Athens, Greece, June 11, 1992. For public opinion data, see "Europabarometer 36--Herbst 1991," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, December 9, 1991; and Ronald D. Asmus, "National Self-Confidence and International Reticence," document no. N-3522-AF (Santa Monica: rand, 1992). Back.
Note 51:
Based on interviews with various officials in Lisbon, Madrid, Paris, Brussels, the Hague, Bonn, Rome, and Copenhagen, 1991-1993. Back.
Note 52:
Based on interviews in Wellington, Canberra, and Tokyo. Back.
Note 53:
See Diego Ruiz Palmer, "French Strategic Options in the 1990s," Adelphi Paper no. 260 (London: International Institute for Strategic
Studies, 1991); and Elizabeth Pond, Beyond the Wall: Germany's Road to Unification (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1993), p. 66, quoting interviews with nato officials. See also David G. Haglund, Alliance Within the Alliance ? Franco-German Military Cooperation and the European Pillar of Defense (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991). Back.
Note 54:
Deutsch et al., Political Community in the North Atlantic Area, pp. 28 and 68. Back.
Note 55:
Ibid., pp. 66-67. Back.
Note 56:
Václav Havel, "How Europe Could Fail," New York Review of Books, November 18, 1993, p. 3. Back.
Note 57:
Considerable research argues that democratic governments do not fight other democratic governments. See, for example, Steve Chan, "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall . . . Are Freer Countries More Pacific ?" Journal of Conflict Resolution 28 (December 1984): 617-40; Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdolai, "Regime Types and International Conflicts, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (March 1989): 3-36; and Randall L. Schweller, "Domestic Structures and Preventive War: Are Democracies More Pacific ?" World Politics 44 (January 1992): 235-69. Back.
Note 58:
Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area, pp. 117-61. Back.
Note 59:
A similar argument has been made by James M. Goldgeier and Michael McFaul, "A Tale of Two Worlds: Core and Periphery in the Post-Cold War Era," International Organization 46 (spring 1992): 467-91. Back.
Note 60:
For an elaboration, see Richard Ashley, "The Poverty of Neorealism," International Organization 38 (spring 1984): 225-86; Alexander Wendt, "The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory," International Organization 41 (summer 1987): 335-70; and David Dessler, "What's at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate ?" International Organization 43 (summer 1989): 441-73. Back.
Note 61:
Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 90; idem, "Reflections on Theory of International Politics," p. 329. Back.
Note 62:
See Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 118; and idem, "Reflections on Theory of International Politics," pp. 330-31. Back.
Note 63:
Richard Ned Lebow, "Windows of Opportunity: Do States Jump Through Them ?" International Security 9 (summer 1984): 147-86. Back.
Note 64:
See McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (New York: Random House, 1988); John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); and Richard Ned Lebow and Janice Gross Stein, We All Lost the Cold War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). Back.
Note 65:
Waltz writes that "rules, institutions, and patterns of cooperation, when they develop in self-help systems, are all limited in extent and modified from what they might otherwise be" ("Reflections on Theory of International Politics," p. 336). Back.
And the nature of the case first compelled us to advance our empire to its present height, fear being our principal motive, though honour and interest afterwards came in. And at last, when almost all hated us, when some had already revolted and had been subdued, when you had ceased to be the friends you once were, and had become objects of suspicion and dislike, it appeared no longer safe to give up our empire, especially as all who left us would fall to you. And no one can quarrel with a people for making, in matters of tremendous risk, the best provision that it can for its interest.
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